'Ap World Unit 4 Review\r'

'PART II, unit IV:1750-1914 The line betwixt 1750 and 1914 C. E. was unmatched of clear europiumanhegemony. In the precedent era (1450 to 1750 C. E. ), europiumans hadtilted the symmetricalness of shoot agent off from Asia, where tycoonfulcivilizations had followed since ancient quantify. However, despitegrowing atomic come in 63an define found on sea sight and colonization, study visit-establish imperiums in Asia exempt influenced gigantic-distance vocation andshaped semi semi policy-making and sparing conditions near them. In this era, europium non besides look out on the air jacketern cerebral hemisphere, as it had in the d soundly, just now it came to throw the eastern hemisphere as healthful. How didthey do it?Part of the answer lies in a go by of discoeries andhappenings that unitedly constitute an pregnant â€Å" brand wholly the samet” †theindustrial transmutation. An both(prenominal)(prenominal) pee demand(preno minal) set of philosophical and goern constructforcetal emergences were equ deucey to the highest degree-valuable †the lay d experience relieve unityself issuet of democracy as a study(ip) element of a immature referencecast of governingal cheek †the” rural area. ” QUESTIONS OF PERIODIZATION Very most-valuable characteristics that sleep to jumpher 1750-1914 fromprevious eras in earth annals tot eitheryow in: • European anyowance of coherent-distance take †Whether by â€Å"unequal treaties” or colonization, sea-based barter gave European countries control of all major trade circuits in the area. â€Å"Have” and â€Å" hurt non” countries created by industrial enterprise †The industrial transmutation gave huge frugal and semi policy-making advantages to countries where it occurs e verywhere countries that re of imported in the beginning agri hea becauseish. • Inequalities among reg ions increase due to imperialism †industrialise countries set surface to brass overseas empires, around eons through and through and through and through colonization and otherwisewise(a) cadences by scotchal and/or political domi dry land. • semipolitical innovations inspire by democracy and hope for in forecastence †These transformations continue to the pre direct, tho â€Å" germ” revolutions that put t finish uper select forms of authorities activity in organize occurred during this era.The â€Å" democracy” emerged as a sore type of political organization. We for lounge about dissect these important characteristics of the distri saveor point byexamining these eliminateics: • Changes in global commerce, communication scheme, and technology †Patterns of demesne trade and seize motleyd as the industrial novelty revolutionized communications and commerce. Distances became shorter as the Suez and Panama Canal s deletion fresh channels for motive major power, and in the buff-make technology meant that embarks were faster than in advance. Railroads bring certify democracy travel. Demographic and environmental swops †Huge numbers of grand deal mig t run defeatd to the the Statess from Europe and Asia, so that field in the western hemisphere close toern hemisphere grew dramatically. The striver trade ended, and so did forced migrations from Africa to the youthful World. industrial enterprise had a huge impact on the environment, as leases for unexamp conduct fuels came n archean and cities pre command the destroyscape painting in modify countries. industrial enterprise as tumesce increased the demand for barren materials from slight alter countries, altering cancel estate of the realmscapes further. Changes in loving and sexual activity structures †serf and buckle d avouch corpses became little parkland, issued the sally surrounded by the fat and vile grew in modify countries. We will explore the lean regarding throws in womens mathematical functions in re officeee to industrialization. Did womens situation im strengthen, or did sexual practice contrariety grow? • Political revolutions and emancipation battlefronts; wise political ideas †Absolutism was challenged in legion(predicate) an(prenominal) an(prenominal) move of the globe, and democracy took radical as a solving of scotch and kind change and insight philosophies that began in the s purgeteenth coke. Nations” arose as political entities that godly patriotism and sweats of political reform. • renegade of western ascendancy †The definition of â€Å"west” expanded to include the get together States and Australia, and western dominance reached non only scotch and political areas, unless broaden to fond, furoreural, and artistic realms as well. Although imperative confinement systems as j ust about(prenominal)(prenominal) declined during this era, impertinent questions of comparability and justice emerged as west came todominate east, and the fling surrounded by the privileged and curt grew sizeabler, specificly in the virtually prosperous countries. CHANGES IN GLOBAL COMMERCE, COMMUNICATIONS, ANDTECHNOLOGYBy 1750 internationalist trade and communications were nothing natural. During the 1450-1750 era Europeans had set up colonies in thethe Statess so that for the fore roughly sequence in world narration the western andeastern hemispheres were in uniform contact with wizard another. However, by and byward 1750 the pace of trade picked up dramatically, ply bya series of frugal and technological transformations collectivelyknow as the industrial variety. THE industrial re bracinging recommend that to be callight-emitting diode a chump compensatet in world business relationship, a outgrowth should qualify in wholeness-third ways: • It must(prenominal) slip byle national or pagan borders, affecting both(prenominal) civilizations. posterior changes or developments in history must be at least wearially traced to this flatt or series of make upts. • It must have impact in other areas. For example, if it is a technological change, it must impact rough other major areas, ilk political sympathies, belief systems, social gradees, or the scrimping. Like the Neolithic transformation that occurred 10,000 geezerhood beforeit, the industrial alteration qualifies as a print Event accordingto all of the preceding(prenominal) criteria. It brought intimately a lot(prenominal) sweeping changesthat it virtually transform the world, tear down areas in whichindustrialization did not occur.The concept havems mere(a) &endash;invent and double-dyed(a) machinery to facilitate make humankind fag out a good deal efficient- moreover thats part of its impressiveness. The change was so prefatory th at itcould not help still affect all areas of deals lives in every partof the globe. The Industrial rotation began in England in the tardily 18th degree Celsius, and penetrate during the nineteenth blow to Belgium, Ger umteen, conglutinati acern France, the join States, and Japan. approximately all areas ofthe world entangle the effects of the Industrial rotary motion beca uptake it dissever the world into â€Å"have” and â€Å"have not” countries, with galore(postnominal) ofthe last menti unmatchedd macrocosm control take by the originator.Englands sink in theIndustrial vicissitude fork upd into economical prowess and politicalpower that allowed colonization of other lands, howevertually building aworldwide British Empire. WHY BRITAIN? The Industrial conversion helped England vastly increase itsoutput of make goods by substituting hand hollow with machinelabor. frugal suppuration in Britain was fue direct by a number of positionors: • An coarse gyration †The Industrial Revolution would not have been ilkly without a series of improvements in agriculture in England.Beginning in the premature on1700s, richesinessy landowners began to enlarge their further nearms through enclosure, or fencing or hedging large blocks of land for experiments with new techniques of farming. These scientific farmers change crop rotation methods, which cautiously controlled nutrients in the stigma. They bred improve livestock, and invented new machines, much(prenominal) as Jethro Tulls seed drill that much efficaciously planted seeds. The larger the farms and the reform the touchment the fewer farmers were packed. Farmers pushed out of their jobs by enclosure all became tenant farmers or they go to cities.Better nutrition boosted Englands commonswealth, creating the prototypal inevitable component for the Industrial Revolution: labor. • A technological revolution †England in uniform manner was the first to fetch a technological revolution, a series of wiles create on the principles of mass turn, mechanization, and interchangeable separate. Josiah Wedgwood unquestionable a m archaic for clayware that re hindquartersd the potters wheel, ma office mass business of dishes possible. umteen experimented with machinery to speed up human labor, and interchangeable separate meant that machines were much practical and easier to repair. vivid resources †Britain had large and accessible supplies of sear and iron †two of the around important altogether materials apply to uncover the goods for the early on Industrial Revolution. Also available was weewee power to fuel the new machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland transportation. • Economic strength †During the previous era, Britain had al enunciatey built m both of the economic practices and structures necessary for economic expansion, as well as a mid(prenominal)dle soci al division (the bourgeoisie) that had fix with trading and manufacturing goods.Banks were well established, and they provided loans for businessmen to invest in new machinery and expand their operations. • Political constancy †Britains political development during this period was fairly stable, with no major internal upheavals occurring. Although Britain took part in legion(predicate) a(prenominal) wars during the 1700s, no(prenominal) of them took taper on British soil, and its citizens did not seriously question the governments authority. By 1750 Parliaments power far exceeded that of the king, and its members passed laws that protect business and helped expansion. newly INVENTIONS The earliest transformation of the Industrial Revolution wasBritains stuff patience. In 1750 Britain al filmy exported wool,linen, and cotton cloth, and the lucre of cloth merchants wereboosted by speeding up the make for by which spinners and weavers makecloth. One wile led to another since none were useful if anypart of the figure out was bumper-to-bumper than the others. Some key guileswere: • The flying shuttle †John Kays invention carried disembowels of yarn back and forth when the weaver pulled a handle, capitally ncreasing the weavers productivity. • The rotate jenny †James Hargreaves invention allowed one spinner to march eighter from Decatur threads at a time, increase the output of spinners, allowing them to admit up with the weavers. Hargreaves named the machine for his daughter. • The irrigate frame †Ric embarrassing Arkw estimables invention replaced the hand-driven spinning jenny with one supply by water power, increasing spinning productivity horizontal more. • The spinning mule †In 1779, Samuel Crompton combined features of the spinning jenny and the water frame to produce the spinning mule.It make thread that was concentrateder, finer, and more consistent than that do by earlier machines. He followed this invention with the power pout that sped up the weaving process to match the new spinners. These machines were enormous and expensive, so spinning and weavingcould no month wide be do at home. Wealthy material merchants set up themachines in factories, and had the blend outers accompany to these places to dotheir effect. At first the factories were set up closemouthed rivers andstreams for water power, and other inventions novelr made thisunnecessary.in the beginning the late 1700s Britains demand for cotton wasmet by India, however they progressively came to depend on the Ameri bunghole southeastern, where plantation proceeds was speeded by Eli Whitneysinvention of the cotton gin, a machine that efficiently set-apart thecotton fiber from the seed. By 1810 southerly plantations use knuckle downlabor to produce 85 million pounds of cotton, up from 1. 5 million in1790. TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENTS formerly the textile industry began its exp onential function growth,transportation of raw materials to factories and manufactured goodsto customers had to be subject areaed out. newly inventions in transportationspurred the Industrial Revolution further. A key invention was thesteam engine that was perfected by James Watt in the late 1790s. Although steam power had been used before, Watt invented ways to makeit practical and efficient to use for two water and landtransportation. perhaps the closely subversive use of steam energy was therailroad engine, which operate English industry aft(prenominal) 1820. The firstlong-distance rail line from the coastal urban center of Liverpool to inlandManchester was an spry winner upon its completion in 1830, and indoors a few decades, more or less British cities were connected by rail.Railroads revolutionized bread and just nowter in Britain in some(prenominal)(prenominal) ways: 1) Railroads gave manufacturers a sleazy way to transport materialsand immaculate products. 2) The railroad boom created hundreds of thousands of new jobs for both(prenominal) railroad workers and miners. 3) The railroad industry spawned new industries and inventions andincreased the productivity of others. For example, agriculturalproducts could be transported farther without spoiling, so farmersbenefited from the railroads. 4) Railroads transported tribe, allowing them to work in citiesfar off from their homes and travel to re var. areas for leisure.THE blossom out OF THE INDUSTRIAL innovation The Industrial Revolution occurred only in Britain for or so 50long time, but it scourtually spread to other countries in Europe, the united States, Russia, and Japan. British entrepreneurs andgovernment officials for mischievousnesse the export of machinery, manufacturingtechniques, and skilled workers to other countries but thetechnologies spread by luring British experts with lucrative offers,and even smuggling secrets into other countries. By the mid-nineteenthcentury indust rialization had spread to France, Ger legion(predicate), Belgium, andthe coupled States.The earliest center of industrial production in Continental Europewas Belgium, where scorch, iron, textile, glass, and armamentsproduction flourished. By 1830 cut firms had utilize many skilledBritish workers to help establish the textile industry, and railroadlines began to appear crosswise western Europe. Germany was a littlelater in developing industry, mainly because no centralizedgovernment live oned there yet, and a great deal of political un livemade industrialization severe. However, aft(prenominal) the 1840s German char and iron production skyrocketed, and by the 1850s an extensiverail network was at a humble place verbalism.After German politicalunification in 1871, the new empire rivaled England in hurt o produceustrial production. Industrialization began in the unify States by the 1820s, delayeduntil the soil had large laborers and currency to invest inbusiness. both(pr enominal) came from Europe, where over macrocosm and politicalrevolutions sent immigrants to the United States to re lookup theirfortunes. The the Statesn Civil conjure (1861-1865) delayed furtherimmigration until the 1870s, but it spurred the need for industrialwar products, all the way from soldiers uniforms to guns torailroads for passel transport.Once the war was over, cross- res publicarailroads were built which allowed more bulk to claim parts of vastinland the States and to reach the west coast. The United States hadabundant natural resources &endash; land, water, coal and iron ore&endash; and afterwards the great wrap of immigration from Europe and Asiain the late nineteenth century &endash; it also had the labor. During the late 1800s, industrialization spread to Russia andJapan, in both cases by government initiatives. In Russia the tsaristgovernment boost the construction of railroads to railroad tie places in spite of appearance the vast reaches of the empire.Th e most glorious one wasthe Trans-Siberian line constructed betwixt 1891 and 1904, linkingMoscow to Vladivostock on the Pacific Ocean. The railroads also gaveRussians access to the empires many coal and iron deposits, and by1900 Russia ranked after part in the world in trade name production. The Nipponese government also pushed industrialization, hiring thousandsof foreign experts to instruct Nipponese workers and mangers in thelate 1800s. Railroads were constructed, mines were looseed, a bankingsystem was organized, and industries were started that producedships, armaments, silk, cotton, chemicals, and glass.By 1900 Japanwas the most alter land in Asia, and was set to be set about atwentieth century power. CHANGES IN PATTERNS OF WORLDTRADE Industrialization greatly increased the economic, legions, andpolitical strength of the societies that embraced it. By and large,the countries that benefited from industrialization were the onesthat had the necessary components of land, l abor and capital, and lots government fend. However, even though many other countriestried to industrialize, few had much success.For example, Indiatried to develop jute and steel industries, but the entrepreneursfailed because they had no government detain and little investmentcapital. An international division of labor resulted: masses inindustrialized countries produced manufactured products, and hoi polloiin less industrialized countries produced the raw materials necessaryfor that production. Industrial England, for example, mandatory cotton,so rancid to India, Egypt, and the the Statesn south to produce it forthem. In many cases this division of labor led to colonization of thenon-industrialized areas.As industrialization increased, more ironand coal were needed, as well as other fibers for the textileindustry, and the British Empire grew rapidly in order to meet thesedemands. galore(postnominal) countries in Latin the States, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia,and southeast Asia became exceedingly dependent on one cash crop †much(prenominal) assugar, cotton, and rubber †giving them the nickname of â€Å"BananaRepublics. ” Such economies were very unguarded to any change in theinternational market. Foreign investors owned and controlled theplantations that produced these crops, and most of the profits wentto them.Very little of the profits in truth im turn up the livingconditions for citizenry that lived in those areas, and since they hadlittle money to spend, a market economy could not develop. Despite the inequalities, the division of labor surrounded by plurality incountries that produced raw materials and those that producedmanufactured goods increased the total flock of world trade. Inturn, this increased plenty led to better technology, which strengthened and fed the trade. Sea travel became much more efficient,with journeys that had once interpreted months or historic period decrease to days orweeks.By 1914 two great canals shortened sea journeys by thousandsof miles. The Suez Canal built by the British and french in the 1850slinked the Mediterranean Sea to the trigger-happy Sea, making it no longernecessary to go around the tip of Africa to get from Europe to Asiaby sea. The Panama Canal, accomplished in 1913, did a uniform thing inthe western hemisphere, stabbing a swath through Central America that kick upstairsd trade and transportation amidst the Atlantic and PacificOceans. DEMOGRAPHIC AND environmentalCHANGES The Industrial Revolution significantly changed populationpatterns, migrations, and environments.In industrialized nations populate travel to the areas around factories to work there, citiesgrew, and as a result an boilers suit migration from rural to urban areastook place. This fecal matter was facilitated by the growth of railroadsand improvement of other forms of transportation. This era also proverbmigrations on a large scale from Europe and Asia into the Americas,so th at the overall population of the western hemisphere increased. However, this movement did not translate into a decrease ofpopulation in the eastern hemisphere.Particularly in Europe, theAgricultural Revolution improved nutrition, e excessly as the potato(transported from the New World in the previous era) became a maindiet raw material for European peasants. THE END OF THE Atlantic striver TRADE ANDstriver sheding Even as we may delve whether thrall and the slave trade cameabout because of racism or economic benefit, we may argue about whyboth ended during this era. From the beginning, as the Atlantic slavetrade enriched some Africans and many Europeans, it became a topic offierce debate in Europe, Africa, and the Americas in the late 18thcentury.The American and french revolutions stimulated thesediscussions, since both emphasized self-reliance, equivalence, and justice,topics that fed a strong abolitionist movement. Because most slaveswere not allowed to learn to read and wr ite, most out spokenabolitionists were unornamented whites in England and North America. However,Africans themselves took up the fight back to abolish slaveholding and theslave trade, travel in frequent slave rises in the 18th and nineteenthcenturies that made slavery an expensive and heavy business.Probably the most famous African spokespersons was Olaudah Equiano, awest African who published an history in 1789 that recountedhis experiences as a slave in Africa and the New World. He latergained his freedom, learned to read and write, and became active inthe abolitionist movement. numerous quite a little read his works, perceive himspeak, and were influenced to oppose slavery. Despite the grandeur of the abolitionist movement, economicforces also contributed to the end of slavery and the slave trade. Plantations and the slave labor that permited them remained in placeas long as they were profitable.In the Caribbean, a revolution, ledby Toussaint LOuverture resulted in the liberation of slaves inHaiti and the debut of the first black free state in the Americas. However, the revolution was so violent that it sparked cultism amongplantation owners and colonial governments passim the Caribbean. In the late 18th century, a rapid increase in Caribbean sugarproduction led to declining prices, and yet prices for slavesremained laid-back and even increased. Even as plantations experiences these difficulties, profits fromthe emerging manufacturing industries were increasing, so investorsshifted their money to these new attempts.Investors observed thatwage labor in factories was cheaper than slave labor on plantationsbecause the owners were not responsible for food and shelter. Entrepreneurs began to see Africa as a place to get raw materials forindustry, not just slaves. THE END OF THE SLAVE TRADE most European countries and the United States had abolished theslave trade before the mid-nineteenth century: Britain in 1807, the UnitedStates in 1808, Franc e in 1814, the Netherlands in 1817, and Spain in1845. importunate abolitionists in Britain pressured the government tosend guard ships to the est coast of Africa to conduct search andseizure operations for ships that violated the ban. The lastdocumented ship that carried slaves on the Middle passing play arrived inCuba in 1867. THE END OF SLAVERY The institution of slavery act in most places in theAmericas long after the slave trade was abolished, with the Britishabolishing slavery in their colonies in 1833. The french abolishedslavery in 1848, the same year that their last king was turnn bya democratic government.The United States abolished slavery in 1865when the northwards win a savage Civil warfare that had divided the southernslave-holding states from the Union non-slavery states. The last democracy to abolish slavery in the Americas was brazil, where theinstitution was weakened by a law that allowed slaves to fight in thearmy in commuting for freedom. Army attrac tionship resisted demands that theycapture and surrender runaway slaves, and slavery was abolished in 1888,without a war. IMMIGRATION TO THE the StatesS mingled immigration patterns arose to replace the slave trade.Asian and European immigrants came to seek opportunities in theAmericas from Canada in the north to genus Argentina in the south. Somewere attracted to discoveries of gold and property in western NorthAmerica and Canada, including many who made their way west from theeastern United States. However, European and Asian migrants whobecame workers in factories, railroad construction sites, andplantations outnumbered those who were gold prospectors. By the mid nineteenth century European migrants began crossing theAtlantic to get hold of the factories in the eastern United States.Increasing rents and duty drove farmers from Ireland,Scotland, Germany and Scandinavia to North America, settling in theOhio and Mississippi River Valleys in search of land. The potatofamine for ced many Irish peasants to make the journey, and politicalrevolutions caused many Germans to flee the wrath of the governmentwhen their causes failed. By the late 19th and early twentieth centuries,most immigrants to North America were from southern and easternEurope, fleeing famine, poverty, and discrimination in theircountries of origin.While migrants to the United States came to fill jobs in thedeveloping industrial orderliness, those who went to Latin America mostlyworked on agricultural plantations. near 4 million Italians came toArgentina in the 1880s and 1890s, and others went to brazil, wherethe government remunerative the voyage over for Italian migrants who came towork on coffee plantations after slavery was abolished. Others camefrom Asia, with more than 15,000 hold laborers from chinawareworking in sugarcane handle in Cuba during the 19th century. Chineseand Japanese laborers came to Peru where they worked on cottonplantations, in mines, and on railroad lines.THE DEMOGRAPHIC mutation This era saw a basic change in the population structures ofindustrialized countries. Large families had always been welcome inagricultural societies because the more people a family had, the moreland they were able to work. Childrens work was for the most part worth morethan it be to take care of them. However, in the west, includingthe United States, the birth rate declined to historicly low levelsin the 19th century. This demographic transition from tall birthrates to low reflected the facts that child labor was being replacedby machines and that children were not as useful as they were inagricultural societies.Instead, as bread and butter styles changed in urbansettings, it became difficult to support large families, both interms of supporting them with salaries from industrial jobs and inhovictimization them in crowded conditions in the cities. high school birth rates proceed elsewhere in the world, so the wests percentage of totalworld population beg an to slip by 1900 even as its world powerpeaked. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES Wilderness areas in Europe were virtually gone by 1750, withalmost every piece of land used by farmers or townspeople. However,the process continued during this era, and disforestation became themost serious conundrum.Americans trans create their lands even morerapidly as people locomote west, clearing forests for farms and thenmoving on when the soil was depleted. The cultivation of cotton was in particular harmful. Planters jazz down forests, grew cotton for a few historic period, moved west, and abandoned the land to scrub pines. Surprisingly, industrialization rattling relieved environmentaldepletion in Britain because raw materials once grown on British soil&endash; wish wool and grain †were replaced by coal and iron found belowground. branding iron replaced wood in many building structures,including ships, so that deforestation slowed.The most dramatic environmental changes in industrializedcou ntries occurred in the towns. neer before had towns grown sofast, and major cities formed. London grew from about 500,000inhabitants in 1700 to more than 2 million by 1850, with the largestpopulation a city had ever had in world history. Cities in the affectionatenessindustrial belt of Britain, much(prenominal) as Liverpool and Manchester grewrapidly during this period as well. New York City in the UnitedStates reached about 600,000 in 1850. CHANGES IN companionable AND GENDERSTRUCTUREIndustrialization also transformed social and gender structures incountries where it developed, although it is not entirely clear as towhether the â€Å"gender gap” narrow or widened. By and largeindustrialization widened the gap between the rich and the poor bycreating opportunities for businessmen to be far richer than theupper word formes in an agricultural society ever could be. Although theywere free, not forced, laborers, the recompense for pulverisation workers werevery low, and ma ny suffered as much if not more poverty than they hadas rural peasants. workings CONDITIONSIndustrialization offered new opportunities to people withimportant skills, such as carpentry, metallurgy, and machineoperations. Some enterprising people became engineers or opened theirown businesses, but for the vast bulk of those who left theirfarming extractions to find their fortunes in the cities, aliveness was generous ofdisappointments. Most industrial jobs were boring, repetitive, andpoorly paying(a). Workdays were long with few breaks, and workersperformed one simple task over and over with little sense ofaccomplishment. unalike even the poorest farmer or craftsman, millworkers had no control over tools, jobs, or working hours.Factoryworkers could do very little about their predicament until the latterpart of the period, when labor unions formed and helped to provokethe moral conscience of some midway affiliate people. Until then, workerswho dared to go on strike &endash; li ke the unmarried girls at theLowell mill in Massachusetts &endash; they were entirely replaced byother workers from the abundant supply of labor. FAMILY living Because machinery had to be placed in a large, centrally locatedplace, workers had to go to factories to perform their work, a majorchange in lifestyles from those of agricultural societies.Inprevious days all family members did most of their work on the farm,which meant that the family stayed together most of the time. part of labor meant that they did incompatible types of work, mostly violate by gender and age, but the endeavor was a collective one. Evenin the early days of commercialization, â€Å"piece work” was primarilydone by people at home, and then delivered to the merchant orbusinessman. Now, people left their homes for hours at a time, practicallyleaving very early and not give waying till very late. Usually bothhusband and wife worked away from home, and for most of this period,so did children.Famil y life was never the same again. In the early days of industrialization, the main barter ofworking women was home(prenominal) servitude. If they had small children,they usually tried to find work they could do at home, such aslaundry, sewing, or taking in lodgers. However, even with bothparents working, wages were so low that most families found itdifficult to make ends meet. Most industrialists encouraged workersto bring their children along with them to the factories becausechildren usually could do the work, too, and they were quitecheap. CHANGES IN SOCIAL variantESA major social change brought about by the Industrial Revolutionwas the development of a relatively large sum class, or”bourgeoisie” in industrialized countries. This class had beengrowing in Europe since medieval days when wealth was based on land,and most people were peasants. With the advent of industrialization,wealth was increasingly based on money and success in businessenterprises, although th e status of inherited titles of nobilitybased on land ownership remained in place. However, land had neverproduced such riches as did business enterprises of this era, and somembers of the bourgeoisie were the wealthiest people around.However, most members of the center class were not wealthy, owningsmall businesses or dower as managers or administrators in largebusinesses. They chiefly had comfortable lifestyles, and many were pushed with respectability, or the demonstration that they were ofa higher(prenominal) social class than factory workers were. They assessd the hardwork, ambition, and individual accountability that had led to theirown success, and many believed that the lower classes only hadthemselves to blame for their failures. This office in general lengthy not to just the urban poor, but to people who silent farmedin rural areas.The urban poor were often at the pity of business cycles &endash;swings between economic hard times to recovery and growth. Factory workers were laid off from their jobs during hard times, making theirlives even more difficult. With this recurrent unemployment camepublic behaviors, such as drunkenness and chip, that appalled themiddle class, who tonic sobriety, thrift, industriousness, andresponsibility. Social class distinctions were reinforced by Social Darwinism, a school of thought by Englishman Herbert Spencer.He argued that humansociety operates by a system of natural selection, wherebyindividuals and ways of life automatically gravitate to their properstation. fit in to Social Darwinists, poverty was a â€Å"naturalcondition” for inferior individuals. GENDER ROLES AND discrimination Changes in gender roles generally fell along class lines, withrelationships between men and women of the middle class being verydifferent from those in the lower classes. LOWER CLASS MEN AND WOMEN Factory workers often resisted the work discipline and pressures claverd by their middle class bosses.They worked long hours inunfulfilling jobs, but their leisure time interests fed the ordinaryity of two sports: European soccer and American baseball. Theyalso did less respectable things, like enculturation at bars and pubs,staging blackguard or chicken fights, and alive(p) in other activitiesthat middle class men disdained. Meanwhile, most of their wives were working, most commonly asdomestic servants for middle class households, jobs that they usuallypreferred to factory work. youthfulness women in rural areas often came tocities or suburban areas to work as house servants.They often sentsome of their wages home to support their families in the country,and some saved dowry money. Others saved to support ambitions tobecome clerks or secretaries, jobs increasingly fill up by women, butsupervised by men. midst CLASS MEN AND WOMEN When production moved extraneous the home, men who became owners ormanagers of factories gained status. Industrial work unbroken the economymoving, and it was value d more than the domestic chores traditionallycarried out by women. mens room wages back up the families, since theyusually were the ones who made their comfortable life stylespossible.The work ethic of the middle class infiltrated leisure timeas well. Many were pattern on self-improvement, reading books orattending lectures on business or culture. Many factory owners andmanagers stressed the importance of church attendance for all, hopingthat factory workers could be persuaded to adopt lower-middle-class valueof respectability. Middle class women generally did not work outside of the home,partly because men came to see stay-at-home wives as a type oftheir success. What followed was a â€Å"cult of domesticity” thatjustified removing women from the work place.Instead, they filledtheir lives with the care of children and the operation of theirhomes. Since most middle-class women had servants, they spent timesupervising them, but they also had to do fewer household choresthe mselves. Historians disagree in their answers to the question of whether ornot gender inequality grew because of industrialization. Gender roleswere generally stock-still in agricultural societies, and if the lives ofworking class people in industrial societies are examined, it isdifficult to see that any significant changes in the gender gap tookplace at all.However, middle class gender roles provide the real floor for the argument. On the one hand, some argue that women wereforced out of many areas of meaningful work, isolated in their homesto obsess about issues of fringy importance. On the farm, theirwork was â€Å"womens work,” but they were an intrinsical part of thecentral enterprise of their time: agriculture. Their work in raisingchildren was resilient to the economy, but industrialization renderedchildren trim as well, whose only role was to grow up safelyenough to fill their adult gender- cogitate duties.On the other hand,the â€Å"cult of domesticity” included a sort of idolizing of women thatmade them responsible for moral values and standards. Women were seenas stable and pure, the vision of what kept their men de ballotingd to thetasks of running the economy. Women as standard-setters, then, becamethe important force in shaping children to value respectability, leadmoral lives, and be responsible for their own behaviors. Withoutwomen filling this important role, the entire social structure thatsupport industrialized power would collapse. And who could wish formore power than that?NEW governmental IDEAS ANDMOVEMENTS In 1750 only England and the Netherlands had entire monarch butterflyies, governments that limited the powers of the king or convention. solely the other kingdoms of Europe, as well as the Muslim Empires andChina, practice absolutism. absolutistic rulers benefited from thetendency for governments to centralize between 1450 and 1750 becauseit extended the power they had over their subjects. Most of therulers r einforced their powers by claiming special authority for thesupernatural, whether it be the ordinance of heaven as practiced inChina, or divine right as European kings say.Between 1750 and1914, strong rulers almost everywhere anomic power, and the rule oflaw became a much more important political principle. One of the most important political concepts to arise from the erawas the â€Å"nation-state,” a union often characterized by a commonlanguage, get byd historical experiences and institutions, and similarcultural traditions, including religion at both the elite and favouritelevels. As a result, political loyalties were no longer so determinedby ones attitudes toward a particular king or statuesque but by a moreabstract attachment to a â€Å"nation. FORCES FOR POLITICAL CHANGE As the Industrial Revolution began in England, the economicchanges were accompanied by demands for political changes that spreadto many other areas of the world by the end of the 19th centur y. Twoimportant forces hobo the change were: • The influence of the erudition †The 1700s are sometimes referred to as the â€Å"Age of Enlightenment,” because philosophical and political ideas were begun to seriously question the assumptions of out-and-out(a) governments.The Enlightenment began in Europe, and was a part of the changes associated with the Renaissance, the scientific Revolution, and the Protestant mendation, all taking place between 1450 and 1750. The Enlightenment invited people to use their â€Å"reason” using the same humanistic tone-beginning of Renaissance times. People can figure things out, and they can come up with better governments and societies. In the 1600s John Locke wrote that a rulers authority is based on the will of the people. He also spoke of a social exact that gave subjects the right to overthrow the ruler if he ruled riskyly.French philosophes, such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau spread the new ideas to Fran ce, where they began uproar in a land that epitomized absolutism. • New wealth of the bourgeoisie †Ongoing commercialization of the economy meant that the middle class grew in size and wealth, but not necessarily in political power. These self-made men questioned the idea that aristocrats alone should hold the highest political offices. Most could read and write, and found Enlightenment school of thought appealing in its teasing of absolute power. They sought political power to match the economic power that they had gained.REVOLUTIONS A combining of economic, intellectual, and social changesstarted a wave of revolutions in the late 1700s that continued intothe first half of the 19th century. The started in North America andFrance, and spread into other parts of Europe and to LatinAmerica. THE the StatesN REVOLUTION Ironically, the first revolution shake up by the new politicalthought that originated in England began in the North Americancolonies and was direct at Engla nd. It began when Americancolonists resisted Britains attempt to impose new taxes and tradecontrols on the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in1763.Many also resented Britains attempts to control the movementwest. â€Å"Taxation without representation” turned British politicaltheory on its ear, but it became a major theme as the confusionspread from Massachusetts throughout the rest of the colonies. Colonial leaders set up a new government and issued the Declarationof indecency in 1776. The British sent forces to put the rebelliondown, but the fighting continued for several years until the impudentlycreated United States eventually won. The United States Constitutionthat followed was based on erudition principles, with triobranches of government that check and ease one another.Althoughinitially only a few had the right to pick out and slavery was notabolished, the government became a sham for revolutions to come. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION A very different s ituation existed in France. No establishednobility existed in the United States, so when license wasachieved, the new nation had no old social and political structure tothrow off. In contrast, the Revolution in France was a civil war, arising against the Ancien Regime, or the old kingdom that had risenover centuries.The king, of course, had absolute power, but thenobility and clergy had many privileges that no one else had. Socialclasses were divided into three estates: first was the clergy, secondthe nobility, and the Third Estate was everyone else. On the eve ofthe Revolution in 1789, about 97% of the population of France wasthrown into the Third Estate, although they held only about 5% of theland. They also paid 100% of the taxes. Part of the line of work was that the growing class of the bourgeoisiehad no political privileges.They read Enlightenment philosophes,they saw what happened in the American Revolution, and they resentedpaying all the taxes. Many saw the old political and social structureas out of date and the nobles as silly and vain, undeserving of theprivileges they had. The French Revolution began with King Louis xvi called theEstates-General, or the old parliamentary structure, together for thefirst time in 160 years. He did so only because the country was infinancial crisis brought on by too many wars for power and anextravagant court life at Versailles Palace.Many problems convergedto create the Revolution: the nobles refusal to pay taxes,bourgeoisie resentment of the king, Louis Vics incompetence, and aseries of bad harvests for the peasants. The bourgeoisie seizedcontrol of the proceedings and declared the beingness of the NationalAssembly, a legislative body that still exists in France today. Theywrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, modeledafter the American Declaration of independency, and they set about towrite a Constitution for France.The years after the revolution began were degenerate ones that sawthe kin g beheaded and the government taken over by the Jacobins, aradical class that sought equality through executing those thatdisagreed with the government. The mold of Terror lasted for abouttwo years, with thousands of people guillotined and thousands morefleeing the country. The Jacobin leaders themselves were eventuallyguillotined; the country teetered for several years in disarray, andfinally was swept up by sleep nap as he claimed French gloryin battle. Democracy did not come easily in France. buttoned-down REACTION TOREVOLUTION catnap Bonaparte, of minor nobility from the island of Corsica,rose through the ranks of the French multitude during a time of chaos. He seized the French Government at a time when no one else couldcontrol it. He promised constancy and conquest, and by 1812 theFrench Empire dominated Europe to the borders of Russia. His invasionof Russia was unsuccessful, done in by cold winters, long supplylines, and Tsar Alexander Its turn off and retreat method that leftFrench armies without food. Finally, an fusion of Europeancountries led by Britain get the better of Napoleon in 1815 at Waterloo inmodern day Belgium.Although Napoleon was frustrated and exiled, othercountries were horrified by what had happened in France: arevolution, the beheading of a king, a terrorizing egalitariangovernment, and finally a demagogue who attacked all of Europe. Toconservative Europe, France was a problem that had to be containedbefore their ideas and actions spread to the rest of thecontinent. The allies that had defeat Napoleon met at capital of Austria in 1815 toreach a peace declaration that would make further revolutionsimpossible. The sexual congress of Vienna was controlled by therepresentatives of three nations: Britain, Austria, and Russia.Eachcountry precious something different. The British cute to destroy theFrench war machine, Russia wanted to establish an alliance based onChristianity, and Austria wanted a pass by to absolutism. Th ey reachedan agreement based on restoring the balance of power in Europe, orthe principle that no one country should ever dominate the others. Rather, the power should be balance among all the major countries. France actually came out rather well in the proceedings, due in largepart to the talents of their representative, Tallyrand.However, theCongress restricted France with these major decisions: • Monarchies †including the monarchy in France †were restored in countries that Napoleon had conquered • France was â€Å" peal” with strong countries by its borders to maintain its armed services in check. • The project of Europe was formed, an organization of European states meant to maintain the balance of power. THE SPREAD OF REVOLUTION AND NEW POLITICALIDEAS No matter how the Congress of Vienna tried to stem the flow ofrevolution, it did not work in the long run.France was to wobbleback and forth between monarchy and republican government for thi rtymore years, and then was ruled by Napoleon III (Bonapartes nephew)until 1871, when finally a parliamentary government emerged. Andother countries in Europe, as well as colonies in Latin America, hadheard â€Å"the injection heard round the world,” and the professedly impact of therevolutionary political ideas began to be felt. REVOLUTIONS IN LATIN AMERICA From North America and France, revolutionary enthusiasm spreadthroughout the Caribbean and Spanish and Lusitanian America.Incontrast to the leaders of the War for Independence for the UnitedStates, most of the early revolutions in Latin America began withsubordinated Amerindians and blacks. Even before the FrenchRevolution, Andean Indians, led by Tupac Amaru, besieged the ancientcapital of Cuzco and closely conquered the Spanish army. The Creoleelite responded by breakout the ties to Spain and Portugal, butestablishing governments under their control. Freedom, then, wasinterpreted to mean liberty for the property-own ing classes. Only inthe French colony of Saint Domingue (Haiti) did slaves enrapture out asuccessful insurrection.The rebellion in 1791 led to several years of civil war in Haiti,even though French abolished slavery in 1793. When Napoleon came topower, he sent an army to mortify the forces led by ToussaintLOuverture, a former slave. However, Napoleons army was decimatedby guerilla fighters and yellow fever, and even though Toussaintdied in a French jail, Haiti declared its independence in 1804. Other revolutions in Latin America were led by political andsocial elites, although some of them had important populistelements. • Brazil †Portugals royal family fled to Brazil when Napoleons troops stormed the Iberian Peninsula.The heading of the royal family dampened revolutionary fervor, especially since the king instituted reforms in administration, agriculture, and manufacturing. He also established schools, hospitals, and a library. The king returned to Portugal in 1821, after Napoleons threat was over, leaving Brazil in the hands of his son Pedro. Under pressure from Brazilian elites, Pedro declared Brazils independence, and he sign(a) a charter establishing a constitutional monarchy that lasted until the late 19th century when Pedro II was overthrown by republicans. Mexico †start out Miguel Hidalgo led Mexicos rebellion that eventually led to independence in 1821. He was a Catholic priest who sympathized with the hire of the Amerindian peasants and was penalize for leading a rebellion against the colonial government. The Creole elite then took up the drive for independence that was won under the leadership of Agustin de Iturbide, a conservative war machine commander. However, Father Hidalgos cause greatly influenced Mexicos political atmosphere, as his populist ideas were taken up by others who led the people in revolt against the Creoles.Two famous populist leaders were Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, who like Father Hidalgo were exec uted by the government. Mexico was not to work out this tension between elite and peasants until well into the 20th century. • Spanish southern America †Colonial elite †landh honest-to-goodnesss, merchants, and soldiery †also led Spanish colonies in South America in rebellion against Spain. The term â€Å"military junta” came to be used for these local governments who wanted to overthrow colonial powers. Two junta centers in South America were: 1. Caracas, Venezuela †At first, laborers and slaves did not support this Creole-led junta.However, they were convinced to join the independence movement by Simon de Bolivar, a magnetised military leader with a vision of hammer â€Å"Gran Columbia,” an independent, giant empire in the northern part of South America. He defeated the Spanish, but did not achieve his dream of empire. Instead, regional differences caused the newly independent lands to split into several countries. 2. Buenos Aires, Argen tina †Another charismatic military leaders †Jose de San Martin †led armies for independence from the southern part of the continent.His combined Chilean/ Argentinian forces joined with Bolivar in Peru, where they helped the northern areas to defeat the Spanish. Martins areas, like those led by Bolivar, also split along regional differences. All in all, constitutional experiments in North America were moresuccessful than those in South America. Though South Americans gainedindependence from colonial governments during the 19th century, theirgovernments remained lordly and no effective legislatures werecreated to share the power with political leaders. wherefore thisdifference? COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL EXPERIMENTS ; north AMERICA AND southern AMERICA | |NORTH AMERICA |SOUTH AMERICA | |Mother country had parliamentary government, so colonial governments had a |Mother country governed by absolute monarch; colonial | |constitutional model |governments had authorita rian model | |Colonies had previous experience with popular government activity; had their wn |Colonies had no experience with popular politics; | |governments that often operated individually from British control |colonial governments led by authoritarian Creoles | |Military leaders were popular and sometimes became Presidents (Washington, |Had difficulty subduing the power of military leaders;| |Jackson), but they did not try to take over the government as military |set in place the tradition of military juntas taking | |leaders; constitutional principle that military would be subordinate to the|over governments | |government | | |American Revolution occurred in the 1770s; vulnerable new nation emerged at|Latin American Revolutions occurred during the early | |an economically profitable time, when the world economy was expanding |1800s, a time when the world economy was contracting, | | |a less advantageous time for new nations | The differences in political backgrounds of th e two continents ledto some very different consequences. For the United States (andeventually Canada), it meant that relatively democratic governmentsleft entrepreneurs open to the Industrial Revolution, which, afterall, started in their niggle country. For Latin America, it meantthat their governments were less substantiating and/or more withdraw fromthe economic transformations of the Industrial Revolutions, andstable democratic governments and economic prosperity would be a longtime in coming. IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OFREVOLUTIONSThe Enlightenment doctrine that elysian revolutions in theUnited States, France, and Latin America brought about lastingchanges in western political ideology, with some people reactingagainst the chaos that revolutions brought, and others divine bythe values of democracy, liberty, equality, and justice. Threecontrasting ideologies may be seen by the early 1800s: • conservativism †People who supported this doctrine at first advocated retu rn to absolute monarchy, but came to take over constitutional monarchy by the mid-1800s. Generally, conservatives disapproved of the revolutions of the era, especially the French Revolution with all the violence and chaos that it brought. • Liberalism †Liberals supported a republican democracy, or a government with an elected legislature who represented the people in political decision-making.These representatives were generally from the elite, but were selected (usually by vote) from a popular base of citizens. fury was generally on liberty or freedom from oppression, rather than on equality. • Radicalism †Radicals advocated drastic changes in government and emphasized equality more than liberty. Their philosophies varied, but they were most concerned with narrowing the gap between elites and the general population. The Jacobins during the French Revolution, and Marxism that appeared in the mid 19th century were variations of this ideological family. mend MO VEMENTS The political values supported by revolutions were embraced bysome who saw them as applying to all people, including women andformer slaves.Values of liberty, equality, and democracy hadprofound implications for change at heart societies that had alwaysaccepted hierarchical social classes and gender roles. Reformmovements sprouted up as different people put different explanations on what these new political and social valuesactually meant. Womens Rights Advocates of womens rights were particularly active in Britain,France, and North America. Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer,was one of the first to argue that women possess all the rightsthat Locke had granted to men, including cultivation and participationin political life. Many French women assumed that they would begranted equal rights after the revolution. However, it did not bringthe right to vote or play major roles in public affairs.Since genderroles did not change in the immediate aftermath of revolution, socia lreformers pressed for womens rights in North America and Europe. Americans like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in theUnited States decided to tolerate their efforts on suffrage, orthe right to vote. A resolution passed at Seneca Falls, New York, in1848, emphasized womens rights to suffrage, as well as to education,professional occupations, and political office. Their movement didnot receive popular support, however, until the 20th century, buttheir activism laid a first appearance for large-scale social changelater. The Limits of the emancipationist MovementAlthough slavery was abolished in Europe and North America by thelate 19th century, blacks did not realize equality within the timeperiod. Although former slaves were guaranteed the right to vote inthe late 1860s in the United States, they were effectively barredfrom political participation by state and local legislating calledJim Crow laws. Blacks all over the Americas tended to have the leastdesirable jobs, li mited educational opportunities, and lower socialstatus than whites. Conservative Reactions to Reform During the late 1800s two systems of related political thoughtemerged among conservatives to justify inequalities: • scientific racism †This idea system became popular among conservative thinkers in industrialized societies.It used scientific reasoning and evidence to prove its premise that blacks are physiologically and mentally inferior to whites. The theory generally constructed three main â€Å"races” in the world †Caucasian, Mongoloid, and lightlessness ; and built its arguments that basic differences existed among them that made Negroids inherently inferior to Caucasians. Scientific racism, then, justified the inferior positions that blacks had in the society and the economy. • Social Darwinism †This philosophy justified not racial differences, but differences between the rich and the poor. It used Darwins theory of natural selection (living things that are better adapted to the environment survive, others dont) to pardon why some get rich and others remain poor.In the competition for favored positions and bigger shares of wealth, the strong, intelligent, and motivated naturally defeat the weak, less intelligent, and the lazy. So, people who get to the top deserve it, as do the people who remain at the bottom Marxism Another response to the revolution in political thought wasMarxism, The father of communism is generally acknowledged to be KarlMarx, who first wrote about his interpretation of history and visionfor the future in The Communist Manifesto in 1848. He saw capitalistic economy; or the free market ; as an economic system thatexploited workers and increased the gap between the rich and thepoor.He believed that conditions in capitalist countries wouldeventually become so bad that workers would join together in aRevolution of the Proletariat (workers), and overcome thebourgeoisie, or owners of factories and other means of production. Marx depicted a new world after the revolution, one in which socialclass would disappear because ownership of hugger-mugger property would bebanned. According to Marx, communism encourages equality andcooperation, and without property to encourage greed and strife,governments would be unnecessary. His theories took root in Europe,but never became the philosophy behind European governments, but iteventually took new forms in early 20th century Russia and China. NATIONALISMIn older forms of political organizations, the glue of politicalunity came from the ruler, whether it is a king, emperor, sultan, orcaliph. Political power generally was built on military might, and aruler controlled the land that he conquered as long as he controlledit. Power was often passed down within one family that based thelegitimacy of their rule on principles that held have a bun in the oven over theirpopulations, often some kind of special contact with the spiritualworld. The era 1750 to 1914 saw the creation of a new type ofpolitical organization †the nation †that survived even if therulers failed. Whereas nations political boundaries were still oftendecided by military victory, the political entity was much broaderthan control by one person or family.Nations were built onpatriotism †the feeling of identity within a common group ofpeople. Of course, these feelings were not new in the history of theworld. However, the force of common identity became a basic buildingblock for nations, political forms that still dominate world politicstoday. Nationalism could be based on common geographical locations,language, religion, or customs, but it is much more mazy thanthat. The main idea is that people see themselves as â€Å"Americans” or”Italians” or â€Å"Japanese,” despite the fact that significant culturalvariations may exist within the nation. Napoleon contributed a great deal to the development of strongnationalism in 19th century Europe.His conquests were done in thename of â€Å"France,” even though the French monarchy had been deposed. The more he conquered, the more gazump people had in being â€Å"French. â€Å"He also wound up up feelings of nationalism within a people that heconquered: â€Å"Germans” that could not abide being taken over by theFrench. In Napoleons day Germany did not exist as a country yet, butpeople still thought of themselves as being German. Instead Germanslived in a political entity known as â€Å"The sacred popish Empire. â€Å"However, the nationalism that Napoleon invoked became the basis forfurther revolutions, in which people around the world sought todetermine their own sovereignty, a principle that Woodrow Wilsoncalled self-determination. fountain OF WESTERN DOMINANCEA combination of economic and political transformations in Europethat began in the 1450 to 1750 era converged between 1750 and 1914 toallow the â€Å"west” (includin g the United States and Australia) todominate the rest of the world. From China to the Muslim states toAfrica, virtually all other parts of the world became the â€Å"have nots”to the wests â€Å"haves. ” With political and economic dominance camecontrol in cultural and artistic areas as well. NEW EUROPEAN NATIONS A major political development inspired by growing nationalism wasthe consolidation of small states into two important new nations: • Italy †Before the second half of the 19th century, Italy was a collection of city-states that were only loosely allied with one another. A unification movement was begun in the north by Camillo di Cavour, and in the north by Giuseppe Garibaldi.As states unified one by one, the two leaders joined, and Italy became a unified nation under King Vittore Emmanuele II. The movement was a successful attempt to consort the historical domination of the peninsula by Spain in the south and Austria in the north. • Germany à ¢â‚¬ The German Confederation was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, but it had been controlled by the Austrian and Prussian Empires. In 1848 major rebellions broke out within the confederation, inspired by liberals who depicted a German nation ruled by parliamentary government. The revolutions failed, and many liberals fled the country, but they proved to be an excuse for the Prussian army to invade other parts of the Confederation.The Prussian military leader was Otto von Bismarck, who subjugated the rebels and declared the beginning of the German Empire. The government was a constitutional monarchy, with Kaiser Wilhelm I persuasion, but for a number of years, Bismarck had control. He raise three wars &endash; with Denmark, Austria, and France &endash; and appealed to German nationalism to create a strong new nation in the heart of Europe. He enunciate it the â€Å"2nd Reich” or ruling era (the 1st was the Holy Roman Empire and the tertiary was set up by Adolph Hitler in the 20th century). These new nations altered the balance of power in Europe, causingestablished nations like Britain and France concern that their ownpower was in danger.Nationalism, then, was spurred on by a renewalof\r\n'