Promotion of Education in Africa Essay -- basic education, literacy, so

Topic 1 Promotion of Education in AfricaThe sales outlet of basic education in the world, especially in Africa has been in the spotlight, waiting impatiently to be solved. The UN, with its Millennium Development Goals, has cited education as one of its gain priorities to be achieved by 2015. The African Union, with its Second Decade of Education, has emphasized the need for primary education in Africa to ensure gender equality and the enhancement of African cultural values. Sadly, in many African nations, especially those in Sub-Saharan Africa, adult literacy sends are well below 50%, and many youthfulness lack the most basic and primal educational opportunities. The delegation of South Africa recognizes this urgent need of promotion of education in Africa.Background As a fortunate nation, South Africa has a stable educational infrastructure and a sound baseline for elementary education. In South Africa, the average adult literacy rate is a good 93 percent, as compared to the int ernational average of 84 percent (2010) and the staggering 62 percent of Africa. To continue, most youth has completed crisscross 9, which concludes their general education and ends their compulsory schooling. And to breathe a sigh of relief, at that place is little gender disparity in the South African education system. However, there are always some holes. Despite the solid literacy rate- this is defined as a person 15 years or older and can deliver a short statement about his or her life- South Africa lacks strong secondary and tertiary education. As stated from a study conducted by the OCED (Organization for scotch Co-Operation and Development), some three-quarters of South African adults have completed at least grade 6, half has completed grade 9, and just under one-thir... ...amic Militant Organizations in AfricaAfricas Militant Islamist Groups. BBC News. BBC, 5 Dec. 2013. Web. 18 Apr. 2014. . Nkala, Oscar. Little Terror Threat in South Africa Report. Home. Defence Web, 5 June 2013. Web. 18 Apr. 2014. .South Africa Consolidated Acts. Protection of intact Democracy against Terrorist and Related Activities Act 2004. South African Legal Information Institute, n.d. Web. 18 Apr. 2014. .The War on Terrorism in Africa. N.p. Westview Press, n.d. PDF.http//www.cfr.org/content/thinktank/Lyman_chapter_Terrorism.pdf

Childhood Obesity Essay -- Health Care, Diseases

To daytime, about one in three American kids and teens are overweight or obese nearly triple the rate from 1983. With good reason, childishness obesity is now the Number 1 health concern among parents in the United States, topping drug abuse and smoking. If current trends continue, todays kids could be the first generation to live shorter lives than their parents (Clinton, para. 3 2011). Children may not understand the complexities of food intake or obesity but they continue to be stirred by the issue. The reality is that if a parent enables their kids to pull back poor eating choices as children they will struggle as adults to catch the right eating choices. many factors contribute to childhood obesity but the major factors are living sedentary lifestyles along with poor nutrition and over consumption of elaboratety foods. Websters encyclopaedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English language defines obese as excessively fat corpulent (bulkiness or largeness of body) overweight. According Charles Stuart Platkin, PhD, (2009) the childs Body Mass office (BMI)-the number calculated from a persons weight and height- provides a reliable indicator of body fatness. A persons body fat percentage is the total weight of the persons fat divided by the persons weight and consists of essential body fat and storage body fat. A childs BMI is calculated to asses there weight to make sure children are healthy at there current status. Based on research from the American Heart Association (2011) 23.4 million children ages two to cardinal are overweight and obese. 12.3 million of those children are males and 11.1 million are females.There is no debate about whether childhood obesity is a problem in the United States. The debate should begin with ackno... ...mputer or playing video games (Childhood Obesity, 2011, p. 1) Considering a child is in school for approximately six to seven hours a day and is playing video games or watching TV four to five hours a day there is very little time left for material activity that often gets neglected.Obesity often appears with children who consume far more calories than they can burn off. . It would take an averaged sized person, running at a yard of 10 minutes per mile, one hour to burn off all 620 calories consumed in the mighty mcnugget meal at McDonalds. (Natural bodybuilding, 2011)Kids nowadays prefer watching SpongeBob satisfying Pants or nickelodeons cartoon network verse taking part in outdoor activities. An easy resolution in avoiding obesity issues among young children is to make time everyday for active activities and limit the amount of time the child sit stationery.

Internet :: essays research papers

The Recording IndustryWe all listen to medicinal drug wether we want to or not. Its in our homes, watching TV, driving in our car, going to the store, its unavoidable. Then why is the recording Industry trying to make people olfaction guilty close to burning outlawed CDs, when we can go to the mall and hear as much music for free as we want . I for one will never feel guilty because I always support the artist I download, by buying his/her cds or going to their concerts. The industry has always been about money instead of music. They are just mad because consumers have finally figured them out.The first record created was in eighteen-seventy-seven. The song was Mary Had a itty-bitty Lamb. The artist/Inventor was Thomas Edison. Edison had created the worlds first phonograph, capable of playing back up to two to three minutes worth of recordings. His invention started a ethnical revolution that went hand in hand with its cousin, the industrial revolution. The idea that sound cou ld be recorded and played back at our pleasure was astonishing. I am sure no one had in mind the endless profits one could make. Profit was a word that would be associated with music about thirteen years later, because in eighteen-ninety the jukebox was first introduced at a bar in San Francisco. In its first six months of operation the coin operated motorcar grossed over one- thousand dollars. It did not take a genius to realize that the United States was home to thousands of bars each capable of making equal or greater value. Thus music and money became synonymous. Singers and songwriters were no thirster artists, but commodities. Along with money comes greed and in nineteen-hundred when Thomas Lambert invented a way of mass-duplicating his patent of indestructible phonograph cylinders, and although the patent was upheld in court, costly lawsuits filed by Edison put him out of business just seven years after his invention.Records became an instant cause with the American public . People were flocking to bars to listen to recorded sound. The library of congress began recording and saving Sounds of America to preserve popular and influential music of the time, everything from bluegrass to classical. It was no surprise that the general public soon yearned for their own way of playing records from the comfort and privacy of their homes. In 1906 a company called victor introduced a enclosed phonograph player that had been designed to look like a piece of furniture.

A Students Perspective of Formula 1 Racing Websites :: Sell Websites Buy Web Sites

A Students Perspective of Formula 1 Racing WebsitesThere are 2 websites that I indigence to talk about. The first one is www.formula1.com. It is the official website for racing sport called Formula 1. The second one is www.f1-live.com. This website is made for big F1 fans. You basin see it from the lay-out which has complete selective information for the fans while the first one only has just enough information and easier for new F1 fans to browse and know more about F1.www.formula1.com (formula1) has some special features much(prenominal) as the history about each Grand Prix (race), how and where to buy the tickets, and interactive circuit map. For the tickets persona, they give you the address and phone number of the circuit. The website for each grand prix is excessively given in case you want to see the details about the city and hotel reservation. For the circuit map, they give you details about the name of the corners, turns and straight lanes. The lay-out for this websit e is kind of simple with white background and non packed with a lot of icons. You can choose the headlines of intelligence agency in the center of the page. On the left side, you can see the drivers and constructors table. On the right side, you can see the sessions schedule and some icons such as rules and regulations, team and driver profiles, and interactive circuit map.The gallery section for this website does not have many pictures. It is only divided in 2-3 sections. The first section is practice, the second one is qualifying, and the last one is race. It is not too attractive(a) for a gallery designed for F1. Probably because it is official website which focus on the pictures of the race in general not specifically on each team. Formula1 is not too attractive in color. It has the important news first than the other websites, such as press conference. It has no advertisement which makes it look more roaring for users. Advertisements just make people annoyed so this is ano ther good point from the website.www.f1-live.com (f1-live) has more features and more specific news for each team. F1-live shows the headlines of each news in their first page and so does formula1. They just write the headlines in a short sentence so people can find them easily. The battle with formula1 is f1-live puts the headlines in group of the team.

Prejudice, Racism and Education :: Sociology Racism Prejudice Essays

Racism has been a steady problem all through time. One of the almosttroublesome areas of racism is in places of training. Finding a cure for thiswould be a major footmark towards ending racism in general. No unrivaled has ever thoughtof a solution yet, and racism will be strong as long as there isnt integrity and only(a). It all started back when the colonists traded plastered goods for slaves.They had never seen a discolour person before and thought of them as lower humanbeings because they did all of the colonists work for them. Since scandalouss wereso low, they were never given a good direction. This lack of education continued throughout the centuries. Even in the1700s slaves were never taught how to read or write. In the 1800s everyonesfeelings about slavery, good or bad, culminated in one big war, the AmericanCivil War. During this period, the slaves really tried to break free from theirpast stereotypes. A small percentage of them taught themselves to read and writea nd they began to initiate others. Some blacks even fought in the Civil War. The most educated wereselected and several black units were formed. Once the North had defeated theSouth in the war, the slaves were freed from bondage, however, that did not basalthat they would be free from the life-threatening prejudice that still permeated thecountry. Schools sprang up in all black areas but were not given the publicfunding that they take and deserved. They were usually only one room and verydirty. They were given the oldest and most worn out books and equipment thatwere available. There werent even many enlighteners who were qualified and werewilling to teach at an all black school. Even though education was institutedfor African Americans, which was a step in the right direction, it was a verysmall step and still didnt give blacks the education they deserved. This treatment prevailed for many years after the Civil War. A newconcept, segregation , evolved and was predominant from t he late 1800s throughthe first gear half of the 1900s. Whites assumed that they were improve than blackpeople and didnt want to be around them in anything they did. For example, inbuses, whites were given privileged seating in lie but blacks had to sit inthe back. Moreover, if there were not enough front seats whites could preemptblacks from their back seats. There were separate restrooms, drinking fountains,stores and, of course, schools. Segregation remained the corresponding for many years until one day in 1955 aPrejudice, Racism and Education Sociology Racism Prejudice EssaysRacism has been a steady problem all through time. One of the mosttroublesome areas of racism is in places of education. Finding a cure for thiswould be a major step towards ending racism in general. No one has ever thoughtof a solution yet, and racism will be strong as long as there isnt one. It all started back when the colonists traded certain goods for slaves.They had never seen a black person bef ore and thought of them as lower humanbeings because they did all of the colonists work for them. Since blacks wereso low, they were never given a good education. This lack of education continued throughout the centuries. Even in the1700s slaves were never taught how to read or write. In the 1800s everyonesfeelings about slavery, good or bad, culminated in one big war, the AmericanCivil War. During this period, the slaves really tried to break free from theirpast stereotypes. A small percentage of them taught themselves to read and writeand they began to teach others. Some blacks even fought in the Civil War. The most educated wereselected and several black units were formed. Once the North had defeated theSouth in the war, the slaves were freed from bondage, however, that did not meanthat they would be free from the terrible prejudice that still permeated thecountry. Schools sprang up in all black areas but were not given the publicfunding that they needed and deserved. They were u sually only one room and verydirty. They were given the oldest and most worn out books and equipment thatwere available. There werent even many teachers who were qualified and werewilling to teach at an all black school. Even though education was institutedfor African Americans, which was a step in the right direction, it was a verysmall step and still didnt give blacks the education they deserved. This treatment prevailed for many years after the Civil War. A newconcept, segregation , evolved and was predominant from the late 1800s throughthe first half of the 1900s. Whites assumed that they were better than blackpeople and didnt want to be around them in anything they did. For example, inbuses, whites were given privileged seating in front but blacks had to sit inthe back. Moreover, if there were not enough front seats whites could preemptblacks from their back seats. There were separate restrooms, drinking fountains,stores and, of course, schools. Segregation remained the same fo r many years until one day in 1955 a

Teaching Philosophy :: Education Teaching Teachers Essays

Teaching Philosophy Throughout life I think everyone has a certain calling. God creates special gifts in people to be used to help others. Some people know right away what their calling is. I am sorry to say that it has taken me a few more years to figure out my love for doctrine. I was a dance teacher for over fourteen years. During that time I attended College of West Virginia earning an Associates Degree in Business Administration. What was I going to do with that? I really did not like business, but my thinking was it would help in running my own dance studio one day. My real love was the involvement, interaction, and teaching of all my dancers. It was so rewarding to see the children learn the different movements I was teaching that day. The scaffolding method used in constructivism is very similar to how I taught dancing. Each calendar week we would review the dance steps from previous weeks and then add on new dance steps. The children were learning dances that I had choreographed. Being a happy wife and a proud mother of a beautiful boy, I wanted to contribute more to the family financially. Although teaching dance is what I loved, it was not a handicraft that paid well. How could I still do what I love, teaching, and bring in a little more money? That is when my husband encouraged me to go bear to Concord College and get my Bachelor of Science Degree in Teaching Physical Education and Health Education. Physical Education and Health Education be two fields I feel very passionate about. Always being active throughout my life, I did not realize how sedentary and disincline our nation is. West Virginia ranks one of the highest states in the nation when it comes to being unfit and obese. I think education could place a more positive learn on this growing epidemic. The purpose of education is to help students gain knowledge to be used in their career, social, and personal lives. Education is important in teachi ng students the past and helping them make knowledgeable decisions for the future. As a teacher, I hope to be able to touch students lives in a way that when it comes to making a choice, they think of what I have taught them, and make a positive decision.

Teaching Philosophy :: Education Teaching Teachers Essays

Teaching Philosophy Throughout life I think every star has a certain calling. God creates additional gifts in people to be used to help others. Some people know right away what their calling is. I am sorry to avow that it has taken me a few more years to figure out my love for teaching. I was a dance instructor for over fourteen years. During that clipping I attended College of West Virginia earning an Associates Degree in Business Administration. What was I going to do with that? I really did not like business, but my opinion was it would help in running my own dance studio one day. My real love was the involvement, interaction, and teaching of all my dancers. It was so rewarding to see the children have the different movements I was teaching that day. The scaffolding method used in constructivism is very similar to how I taught dancing. Each week we would review the dance steps from previous weeks and then add on new dance steps. The children were learning dances that I had choreographed. Being a happy wife and a proud receive of a beautiful boy, I wanted to contribute more to the family financially. Although teaching dance is what I loved, it was not a job that paid well. How could I slake do what I love, teaching, and bring in a little more money? That is when my husband encouraged me to go back to Concord College and get my bachelor-at-arms of Science Degree in Teaching Physical Education and Health Education. Physical Education and Health Education are two fields I feel very passionate about. Always being active throughout my life, I did not realize how sedentary and unfit our nation is. West Virginia ranks one of the highest states in the nation when it comes to being unfit and obese. I think education could place a more positive influence on this growing epidemic. The conclude of education is to help students gain knowledge to be used in their career, social, and personal lives. Education is important in teaching students the past and helping them make headway knowledgeable decisions for the future. As a teacher, I hope to be able to touch students lives in a way that when it comes to making a choice, they think of what I have taught them, and make a positive decision.

Effects of Technology Essay

Technology and the changes it brings domiciliate have a very big effect on our lives. Which scientific change has had the largest effect on life in this country? Why? Write an essay explaining the engineering you have chosen and how it has affected our lives., and the essay is below. Smart resound technology has had the greatest effect on life in this country however, it can be both a blessing and a curse in nows society. This type of technology directly impacts how we go through our daily lives, and it continues to evolve at a rapid pace. The way in which this technology impacts lives can normally be managed by the individual user. The speed in which it brings information to the public is unprecedented. Everyone with a smartphone or tablet has access to limitless information dependable at their fingertips.The way in which people communicate as a result of smartphone technology has changed dramatically. There tends to be less of a verbal confederacy between individuals due to di gital communication. This impact can be seen when eating dinner at a restaurant and looking around the room. Most likely, the volume of the people observed would be staring at their smartphones rather than communicating with their dining party. Another growing problem with smartphone technology in todays society is texting while driving. This dangerous action can put the offender and many others at risk. There are many benefits to the evolution of cell phone technology. Teachers and students are able to access information instantly. This saves both time and money in certain situations.Smartphone technology has been used in medical research and intervention that has continued to improve the quality of life of patients across the globe. This technology has also been used by law enforcement and has aided in locating missing children with alerts world sent directly to peoples smartphones. The ease in which most users of all ages are able to operate a smartphone is astounding. The li mits for this type of technology are truly endless. It is amazing to see how far technology has advanced in such a short period of time. However, people must be cognoscente of the impacts, whether right-hand(a) or bad, that technology can have on society as a whole. Technology, as with most things, must be used responsibly and in moderation.

Ebay in China Essay

The joint venture with tomcat Online will allow eBay to enter the Chinese rapidly developing market. In 2007, mainland China experienced a technology boom in which more plurality were using the internet than ever before. Besides the rocket subjoin of Internet usage in China, E-Commerce is growing as well. With the power and influence of Tom Online, eBay has a unique opportunity to grab the market share of a billion people in China. EBay can benefit a lot from the joint venture with Tom online. Tom Online will help eBay reach millions of people through Internet as well as the mobile Internet. Graph 1 shows that China experienced an exponentially growing in Internet usage. From 2005 to 2007, the Internet users in China doubled from 111million to 205 million. The big population of China almost guaranteed Internet usage growth.With the increase of Internet usage in China, the online shopping in any case grows rapidly. According to graph 2, online transaction value in China jumped f rom 3.9 billion RMB to 23.1 billon, representing an incredible growth rate of 253%. All the statistics above strongly prove that China is the perfect market for eBay to tap into. In addition to the great potentials of the market of China, the new marketplace will bring together the strengths of both companies. EBay EachNets spherical e-commerce knowledge and large and active trading community in China, and TOM Onlines local market knowledge and active wireless user cup of tea of more than 75 million. The new marketplace will bring enhanced online and mobile opportunities to buyers and sellers in China, evolving eBays participation in China and extending TOM Onlines wireless service portfolio into m-commerce. Upon the launch of the new marketplace, eBay EachNet users will be invited to transition to the new turn up, and TOM Online will head for the hills to deliver its user traffic to the site as well.RisksOn the other hand, it is also risky for ebay to form the joint venture wit h Tom Online. EBay must pay close attention to Tom Online and their system in the market. Instead of eBay, it is Tom Online that has the majority share in Tom EachNet at 51%. EBay has injected over $40 million into Tom EachNet,while Tom Online only contributed $20 million (along with knowledge, technology, and brand value). It is clear that eBay has more to lose in the deal, while Tom Online is simply negotiating their presence in China. EBay must work closely with Tom Online to ensure that their visions for Tom EachNet are similar, and a common strategy is taken to succeed. Chinas business culture is another restriction that eBay must monitor closely. Tom Online does have extremely well connection with the Chinese government, and eBay must be sure to take advantage of the TOM Onlines political networks in China. .

Pathophysiology

The causes or pathogenesis are usually multiracial. Several risk factors can predispose to infection or initiate punk and subsequently the infectious process. Intact duct skin and cerement production have a protective effect against infections. This is secondary to the fact that cerement produces a pH in the ear canal that is slightly acidic. On the other hand, breakdown of skin integrity, insufficient cerement production, or blockage of the ear canal with cerement (which promotes water retention) can predispose to Infection.Skin Integrity can be Injured by direct aroma, heat, and moisture or persistent water In the ear canal. Such damage Is thought to be necessary for initiation of the inflammatory process. Subsequently, edema may result, followed by bacterial inoculation and overgrowth. In genus Otis External, the infection is caused by bacteria or fungi. Scratching, inserting objects into the ear canal, or moisture (from swimming, for example can make the ear canal vulnerable to Infection.The external audile canal is a cylinder measuring approximately 2. 5 CM in length and 7. 0 to 9. 0 mm in width, extending from the conchs cartilage of the pinna to the humanity membrane . It Is divided Into a lateral (outer) cartilaginous portion that occupies approximately one-third of the canal and a average (Inner) bony portion that occupies the remain two-thirds. Their junction is termed the isthmus and is the narrowest region of the ear canal.The outer cartilaginous portion is lined by thicker skin with numerous addenda structures including cerement glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles. The inner bony portion of the canal contains thin skin without subcutaneous tissue. The dermis In this area Is In direct contact with the underlying peritoneum. Thus, minimal hullabaloo or Instrumentation of the bony canal causes significant pain and/or Injury. The Inferior tympanis recess Is a small depression In the inferior medial aspect of the ear canal, adjacent to the tympanis membrane.Debris can collect in this area and cause or perpetuate infection. The lining of the ear canal is a exaggerating exogamous epithelium that undergoes continual sloughing. Epithelial migration is a naturally occurring cleaning process for the ear canal that allows egress of keratin debris and cerement. Epithelial migration begins in the inwardness of the tympanis membrane and continues out to the medial, then lateral aspects of the ear canal.The ear canal is bound superiorly by the middle cranial Foss, interiorly by the temporarinesss Joint and paranoid region, medially by the tympanis membrane, posterior by the mastoid cavity, and inferiorly by the skull base and soft tissues of the neck. These boundaries have particular importance when considering the potential complications of external Otis. The fissures of Sanatoria are a serial of embryological fissures In the anterior aspect of the fissures also allow potential spread of ear canal disease to the paranoid region, temporarinesss Joint, and soft tissue of the upper neck.

Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Essay

IntroductionOne of the most consequential theoretical constructs in habitual goernance is the governmental relation- system duality. For to a with child(p)er extent than a century, the disposal nerve duality has been one of the most disreputable Issues in the field of open regime. The regime- electric pig dichotomy has had a strange history in familiar administration. It expands and contracts, rises and falls, plainly never to go away (Svara & Overeem, 2006 121).At the heart of the mankind administration is consanguinity betwixt executive directors, on one hand, and pols and the existence on the other hand.The nature of that relationship and the proper procedure of political leaders and administrators in the administrative and political wait on have been the subject of considerable debate. In importance of the governance and administration, Waldo (1987) wroteNothing is more cardinal in thinking about public administration than the nature and interrelations o f political recognition and administration. Nor argon the nature and interrelations of political science and administration matters only for academic theorizing. What is more great in the day-today, year-to-year, decade-to-decade operation of government than the ways in which political sympathies and administration are thinkerualized, rationalized ,and related one to the other.12PH.D student of public administration, capital of Iran University, Tehran, Iran. PH.D student of public administration, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran.130ADMINISTRAIE I centering in the public eye(predicate) 17/2011political relation-Administration dichotomy A Century DebateIn this clause we review history of the government-administration dichotomy in five section. First, we examine classical conceptualizations of relationship betwixt politics and administration in early authors notes such as Wilson, Goodnow and weber. We then argue that how the dichotomy pretense rise after founders by the sc ientific management and the principles of administration Movements.Then, we describe relationship among politics and administration after scientific management that in this time the politics-administration dichotomy spurned and emphasize on administrators form _or_ system of government make role, specially under the New public administration (NPA).In next section we contend that how in 80 and 90 decades insisted on interval of form _or_ system of government and administration by the New mankind circumspection (NPM) and the Reinventing organization (RG) Movements. In final section, we review new trends and views on debate that introduce the complementarily model of politics and administration.1. Early views about the politics and administration relationship Wilson, Goodnow and WeberAlthough the politics-administration dichotomy was not current as a theoretical construct until the late 1940s when it initiative became an important issue in the belles-lettres of public admini stration, most scholars now trace it to Woodrow Wilson. Wilsons es produce (1887) with title of The Study of Administration was not cited for many years after publication, however it is an poser of an stream of reformist thinking about government in the late nineteenth century.Wilson intended to shield administration from political interference, He wrote The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics. Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the t accepts for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices (Wilson, 1887 18). Wilson was concerned with both the corrupting and politicizing interference of party organizations in administrative affairs (Stillman, 1973).He was critical of the way coitus handled core legislative sours. He stated that Congress insurance policy making was haphazard and its oversight w as weak. When Wilson suggested the clearer differentiation of politics and administration, he was seeking to strengthen and send the former while protecting the latter (Svara, 1998 52). In The Study of Administration, Wilson explained the divergence of functions of Government as fol miserablesPublic administration is detailed and systematic writ of execution of public law besides the general lawsare obviously outside of and above administration. The broad plans of governmental action are not administrative the detailed execution of such plans is administrative (Wilson, 1966 372). constitution AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 17/2011131Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century DebateHowever, Wilson originally considered politics and administration as independent, but later embraced version of the dichotomy, which assumed that politics and administration interact to improve the organic state (Martin, 1988).In this time Wilson stateed that administrators would directly interpret and respon d to public opinion. Therefore, they should be involved in the policy process and elected officials should be involved in the administrative process (Wilson, 1966 375).Wilsons change of mind displace be explained that On the one hand, He admired the administration of European countries and proposed learning from them, which would not have been possible unless administration was distinctly separate from politics. On the other hand, his ultimate concern was to promote democracy, for he believed that the function of administration was to rescue democracy from its take excesses (Yang & Holzer, 2005 113-4).Miewald (1984 25-6) contend that this view of administrators was even clearer in Wilsons later lectures that stated the real function of administration is not merely ministerial, but adaptive, guiding, courtesyary. It must accommodate and realize the law in practice. In Miewalds view, such administrators similarly were politicians and they must have the freedom to make honest deci sions. Van Riper (1984 209) asserted that Wilson can not be blame or dampen credit for originating the dichotomy.In his view, Wilson like some of his contemporaries, simply wanted to advance the adherent (not political) neutrality of the civil service. Svara (1998 52) argue that Wilsons view of the administrative function was broad and not consistent with the dichotomy model as it came to be articulated later. He refer to this Wilsons note that large powers and unhampered discretion seem to me the indispensable conditions of responsibility for administrators.The European version of the dichotomy was accepted by Frank Goodnow. In his book Politics and Administration (1900), Goodnow attacked to the decision maker, legislative, and judicial functions as three basic functions of government. Instead, he argued, there were 2 basic functions of government the expression of the popular will and the execution of that will. The three traditional powers were derived from the two functions, and each of the three branches of government combined in different measure boththe expression and the execution of the popular will. Goodnow argued that the function of politics was to express the states will and the function of administration was to execute the states will. He contented that it was analytically possible to separate administration from politics, but practically infeasible toad the two functions to one branch of government (Goodnow, 1900 9-13). Goodnow argued that certain aspects of administration were harmed by politics and should have been shielded from it.He argued political ensure over administrative functions is liableto produce inefficient administration in that it makes administrative officers feel that what is demanded of them is not so much work that will improve their own department, as compliance with the behests of the political party (Goodnow, 1900 83).132ADMINISTRAIE I MANAGEMENT PUBLIC 17/2011Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century DebateSvara (1998 53) believed that in Goodnows writing there is a continuity between the political and administrative spheres, not a separation of the two, except as it applies to insulating administrative staff from partisan political inference. Because of Goodnow and other scholars at this time were interested in strengthening the relationship between administrators and elected officials rather than separating them. In sum, It should be recognized that Wilson and Goodnow aimed to rule out the spoils system by unloose administration from political intervention and establishing a merit system in its place.They limitedly opposed political appointments and patronage (Caiden, 1984 53-7 Fry, 1989 1036 Rohr, 2003 xiii-xvii Rosenbloom, 2008 58). They were more concerned with the improvement of administrative practice than with establishing a theoretical Construct (Stillman, 1973 586). In other word, the dichotomy was not merely an analytical device for them, but first of all a practical imperativ e. To Wilson and Goodnow politics bore too strong an influence on public administration.Theirs aim was to take politics out of administration (Fry,1989 1036-7). In early twentieth century, Weber to a fault arrived to a dichotomy between politics and administration, but from the opposite direction of Wilson and Goodnow. Weber argued that politics are too weak to curb administrative power, and that is the danger of Beamtenherrschaft (government by functionaries) that treat government. Therefore, he insisted that it was essential that administration stay out of politics (Weber, 1919/1968 28). In Politikals Beruf Weber leave outs a sharp line between administrators and politiciansAccording to his proper vocation, the genuine civilservantshould not engage in politics, but administer, above all impartially. Hence, he shall precisely not do what the politician, the leader as well as his following, must always and necessarily do, namely, fight. For partisanship, fight, furore are stadium are the politicians element. (Weber, 1919/1968 27-8)According to Weber, in the political controversies public administrators should operate above all impartially and remain politically neutral. In sum, It should be said that in founder s views it was partisan politics they wanted to keep apart from public administration rather than politics per se (Van Riper, 1984 209 Ranney, 1949).Overeem (2005 317) contended that in its classical conceptualizations the dichotomy between politics and administration implied a deep concern about the political neutrality of administrators. Whether attempts were do to take politics out of administration, as in the case of Wilson and Goodnow, or the other way around, as in the case of Weber, the aim was always to leave administration impartial, an outsider to political controversy.ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 17/2011133Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century Debate2. Toward the dichotomy raise of the politics-administration dichotomyconce pt after foundersYang and Holzer (2005 114) believed that in deciphering Wilson and Goodnow, practitioners and academicians incorporated their own beliefs and reconstructed (or distorted) the two authors intentions. This misreading, they argued, is no surprise because in light of the Progressive context Openness to the separation of administration from politics was necessary if public administration was to emerge as an autonomous field, an urgent and legitimate attitude at a time when politics perversely intruded into administration, as exemplified by the spoils system.There is agreement that the idea of separation between politics and administration (Dichotomy) diverged from the earlier approaches by Wilson and Goodnow. Van Riper (1984 209) argue that Wilson and Goodnows ideas do not correspond to a dichotomy. Waldo (1948 108), Appleby (1949 16), Golembiewski (1977 9), and Caiden (1984 60) also have same views.Rabin and Bowman (1984 4) content that the distinction between politics and administration identified by Wilson and Goodnow had been reborn by thirties authors into a dichotomy. Martin demonstrates the thinking of the thirties as follows In the atmosphere provided by scientific management, amechanistic concept of public administration came to prevail widely and in important circles. Administration was separated severely from the legislative body. Politics was anathema-not the politics practiced by administrators, but the politics of the politicians (1952 667). According to Caiden (1984 60-1), in the thirties, there was a narrower conception of administration as being the management of organizations without regard to take, persons, or objectives, that is a generic science of management. Because of the purpose and methods of the two spheres were different, not only could administration be taken out of politics, but politics could be taken out of administration.Thus, the dichotomy model and the scientific practice of administration became the dominant m odes of inquiry in this time. Demir and Nyhan (2008 83) note that the politics-administration dichotomy sought to minimize politics in public administration by prescribing expertise, neutrality, and hierarchy. This tax more than of all was insisted in the thirties. Van Riper (1984 209-10) also argued thatbetween, 1910 and 1950, there did in the literature and practice of public administration a kind of distance between politics and administration.The need for a sharp division was justified to permit scientific methods to be established, and these methods both closed off administration to the untrained politician and at the same time made the administrator an expert who was above politics. In Gulicks view, the politics and administration were differentiated not in foothold of principle, but in foothold of peculiarity and the division of labor. He notedThe reason for separating politics from administration is not that their combination is a violation of a principle of government. The 134ADMINISTRAIE I MANAGEMENT PUBLIC 17/2011Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century Debatereason for insisting that the elected legislative and executive officials shall not interfere with the details of administration, and that the rank and file of the permanent administrators shall be permanent and skilled and shall not meddle with politics, is that this division of work makes use of specialization and appears to give better results than a system where such a differentiation does not exist. (cited by Waldo, 1948 124)Summarizing such views, It should be said that the dichotomy model was not a direct idea identified by founders of public administration but a transformation of those ideas to make them part of the mechanistic approach that rule in the twenties and thirties. The idea of strict separation (dichotomy model) was part of scientific management and the principles of administration that abandoned starting 1940 and replaced by ideas that emphasized interaction between politics and administration.3. Interaction between policy and administrationAlthough in the thirties some of authors such as Gaus, White, and Dimock had been arguing that administrators should have a role in policymaking, but During the 1940s the dichotomy dominated the field of public administration.In the late 1940s and early 1950s, The politics-administration Dichotomy was increasingly criticized, came under attack and was rejected by many authors. Waldo (1948 128) reviewed the extensive literature of the issue and shut downd that any simple division of government into politics and administration is inadequate. He notedAs the 1930s advanced, doubt and dissent increased. In the1940s refutation and repudiation came to the fore. By the 1950s it had become common to refer to the politics administration dichotomy as an outworn if not ludicrous creed (1987 93).We can see the most criticism in Applebys work. In Policy and Administration (1949), Appleby identified politics as eitherth ing having to do with the government and everything the government does. Thus, he concluded, administration could indeed not be no part of it (1949 3). In Applebys view, it is impossible to draw a meaningful institutional distinction between politics or policy and administration.Any issue dealt with in the hierarchy of government is regarded as policy by those who operate below the level at which it is settled, and as administration by those operating above that level. If an issue becomes more controversial, it will rise in the hierarchy and, thus, will be seen as policy by a greater numerate of functionaries and as administration by a smaller number of functionaries.Appleby noted that in the perspective of an outside observer or the public administration theorist, policy and administration are treated together at every level (1949 22). Thus, whether an issue is policy or administration becomes completely relative policy and administration are only two sides of the same coin, ADMIN ISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 17/2011135Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century Debateand there is no use in speaking about them as two distinct governmental functions. Appleby concluded that public administration is not autonomous, exclusive or isolated but is policy making nonetheless (1949 170). He alsodid draw a horizontal line between partisan politics and other forms of politics Everything having to do with the government and everythingthe government does is political, for politics is the art and science of government. But in terms of mass, only a small part of politics is partisan (1949 153).In the 1960sthe role of administrators in political process emphasized because of governments was increasingly troubled by complex social, economic, and security problems such as civil rights and poverty. This tendency was string then din the 1970s, when the Vietnam War, Watergate, and the energy crisis all had an stupor on the balance between politics and administration.Because of the political nature of administration was in high spiritslighted, and the dichotomy denounced as false, many believed that administrators should actively apply their personal values and judgments to policy-making (Yang & Holzer, 2005 116).One of reasons for rejecting separation of politics-administration was due ethical considerations that were evident in the New Public Administration (NPA).Frederickson (1976), with aware of the need of public organizations to administrative values such as efficiency and economy, emphasized that values such as equity, ethics, responsiveness, participation, and citizenship should be considered. He argued that this democratic values should be executed by administrators as responsible individuals. Administrators for the first time were aimed to utilize their personal value judgments in public decision-making. Therefore, politics and administration could not to be separate of each other. 4.Return to the dichotomy separation of policy and administr ation Some of authors believe that in the 1980s observe a fleet to the dichotomy with emphasize on privatization, decentralization and productivity (Uveges & Keller, 1997).This return continued in the 1990s under the Reinventing Government and the New Public Management (NPM) Movements.The Reinventing Government by emphasize on need to change administrators role from rowing to steering reincarnated the dichotomy in five ways distinguishing between policy and management, extending it from the inner workings of government to the body politic, freeing administration from political controls in the form of red tape, redefining accountability, and specifying congressional action as politics and presidential action as management (Carroll, 1995).Separation policymaking of policy- death penalty also supported by the New Public Management. Hughes, one of the NPM proponents, notesPublic organizations do things governments now want to know what they do how well they do it who is in shudder and taking responsibility for results. The primary way of achieving this is to let the manager manage. Meaning that senior manager would themselves136ADMINISTRAIE I MANAGEMENT PUBLIC 17/2011Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century Debatebe responsible for the achievement of results rather than being an administrator. Disaggregate anion means splitting large department into different move by setting up agencies to deliver services for a small policy department. In some ways disaggregation could be seen as a reversion to the ideas of Woodrow Wilson with anorganizational split between policy and administration in the division of policy departments and agencies (Hughes, 2003 62-5).According to Christensen and Laegreid (2001 96-101)The economic way of thinking in NPM points to an to the highest degree generally accepted axiom that it is more efficient to separate political and administrative functions than them integrated, as traditionally has been the case in most countries.The argum ent is that a division between these functions makes it clearer that they are different functions with different actors that is the politicians should set the goals and the civil servants implement the policies. They believed that One argument in favour of a sharper division between politics and administration is that an integrated solution makes politicians vulnerable to influence and pressure from civil servants, that civil servants threaten to invade the political sphere and that a stricer separation of functions makes it easier to control the civil service.TheSlogan let the managers manage, meaning discretion for managers and boards and not too much daily interference from the political leaders. The implication of this guide word is that chief executives are better at managing and therefore should be given the discretion and opportunity to do so, thereby reducing the burden on the political leadership and, finished a sharp division between politics and administration, increase political control.Christensen and Laegreid argued that through devolution and contracting, NPM has sought to separate policy-making more clearly from policy administration and implementation. Policy makers make policy and then delegate its implementation to managers and hold them accountable by contract. 5. Reconceptualization of dichotomy two dichotomiesIn recent two decades, some of authors have critic to the classical conceptualization of the politics-administration dichotomy and attempt to reconceptualize it. Montjoy and Watson (1995 232-3) Argue that some of Wilsons statements certainly do proponent a separation of politics and administration, but what would mean in practice depends upon the renderings of the key terms.They point out that Wilson actually dealt with two different types of politics, one concentrate on partisanship and patronage, the other on policy making. Wilson Clearly wished to separate patronage politics from administration and Whether he advocated a dich otomy of policy making and administration is another issue. Regardless of what he wrote in The Study of Administration, the implications of his later work are unavoidable administrators were politicians they must have the freedom to make ethical decisions.ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 17/2011137Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century DebateMontjoy and Watson believe that much of the confusion about politics and administration comes from Goodnow. They ask that was Goodnows dichotomy between politics and administration or between policy making andadministration, or were politics and policy making interchangeable for him?They scissure an interpretation of Goodnows work establish on the assumption of two dichotomies a conceptual dichotomy between policy and administration and an institutional dichotomy between politics and administration. Montjoy and Watson assert that Goodnow used both politics and policy to refer to the expression of the popular will and administration to refer to the execution of that will.They ask Does politics mean patronage or does it mean policy making, or are the three concepts indistinguishable? They argue that the answer may lie in the definition of politics that Goodnow offers in the beginning of Politics and Administration The act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government through the organization of a party among its citizens-including, therefore, not only the ethics of government, but more especially, and often to the exclusion of ethical principles, the art of influencing public opinion, attracting and marshalling voters, and obtaining and distributing public patronage, so far as the possession of offices may depend upon the political opinions or political services of individuals (Goodnow, 1900 19).Montjoy and Watson content that this statement yields two important points. First, politics is definition ally limited to that part of the policy-making process, the act or vocation of guiding or influen cing the policy of a government, which is accomplished through a particular method, the organization of a party among its citizens. Second, the application of that method explicitly includes patronage.They conceive of Goodnows expression of the public will as the entire policy-making process, including elections. Politics is that part of the process related to political parties. Therefore, they state, we are left with two dichotomies. The first is conceptual, dividing the functions of government into the expression of a will and the execution of that will. The second is operational, the doctrine that the filling of administrative offices (those primarily concerned with execution of the will) should not be used by candidates to attract support in the contest for electoral offices.another(prenominal) argument about reconceptualization of the politics-administration dichotomy has been done by Overeem. Overeem (2005 318-22) draw adisti nction between two types of politics partisan polit ics and policy politics and state that in these two different types of politics, the stakes are different. In partisan politics the stakes are the powers to make decisions (votes and offices), whereas in policy politics the stakes are the contents of those decisions.Public administrators can have an involvement in the latter, but not in the former. In brief, public administrators cannot (and should not) be excluded from the kind of politics that is inherent to policy-making, but they can (and should) be excluded from politics that has a more partisan character. Overeem explain that in its mid-twentieth century reconceptualization, the politics-administration dichotomy was not so much 138ADMINISTRAIE I MANAGEMENT PUBLIC 17/2011Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century Debatethickened in its intensity as it was broadened in its scope. The Dichotomys critics suggested that its intention had been to keep administration not merely out of (partisan) politics, but out of the making of policy as well. Often, the dichotomys critics took what had been conceptualized as a contrast between politics and administration for the parallel, alternative, and occasionally synonymous dichotomy between policy and administration.Indeed, the two dichotomies were more and more taken as synonyms. Overeem conclude that public administration contrasts with two dichotomy 1) politics-administration dichotomy and 2) policyadministration dichotomy. He assert that later should be rejected but former should be accepted.6. New trends complementarity of politics and administration We will finish our argument with focus on a new model about politics and administration relationship that named the Complementarity perplex. Svara (2001 179-80) explain that the complementarity Model of politics and administration is based on the premise that elected officials and administrators join together in the common pursuit of sound governance. Complementarity entails separate move, but parts that come tog ether in a mutually supportive way.Complementarity stresses interdependence along with distinct rolescompliance along with independence respect for political control along with a commitment to shape and implement policy in ways that promote the public interest deference to elected incumbents along with bail bond to the law and support for fair electoral competition and appreciation of politics along with support for professional standards. Svara believe that Complementarity recognizes the interdependence and reciprocal influence between elected officials and administrators.Elected officials and administrators maintain distinct roles based on their unique perspectives and values and the differences in their formal positions, but the functions they perform necessarily overlap.The figure of yawl show different parts of Complementarity Model. The first part is the political dominance that results from high political control and low administrative independence is the condition that has been attacked by reformers from the Progressive Era to the present because of their concern for loss of administrative competence and the potential for political corruption. The second part is bureaucratic autonomy that is feared by critics of the administrative state, who argue that administrators are self-controlling and advance agency interests rather than the public interest.In both situations, Svara explain, either the level of control or independence is extreme, and the key reciprocating value is not present Politicians do not respect administrators, or administrators are not committed to accountability. The third part is the combination of low control and low independence, producing a live and let live attitude among officials. Svara believe that the dichotomy model, which is based on totally separate spheres, would logically fit in this category.ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 17/2011139Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century DebateElected Officialsdegree of contr olLowHighStalemate orlaissez-fair semipolitical DominanceLowComplementarityAdministratorslevel ofindependenceHighPolitical respectadministrativeCompetence andcommitmentAdministrators areCommitted toaccountability andresponsivenessBureaucraticautonomyFigure1. Understanding the interaction between Politicians and Administrator (Svara, 2001, 180)The final part that is the largest space in figure is the zone of complementarity. Svara argue that most interactions among officials reflectcomplementarity, and conclusion from local governments in 14 countries supports this generalization. Although in earlier times there was greater emphasis on subordination of administrators linked to greater reliance on hierarchy as an organizational principle, interdependence and reciprocal influence are common and longstanding.A condition that presumably was common earlier in the century, high accountability and moderate independence, would fit in the upper-left corner of the complementarity quadrant, wh ereas recent experience with moderate control and extensive administrative initiative would be in the lower-right corner. Svara assert that Complementarity Model entails ongoing interaction, reciprocal influence, and mutual deference between elected officials and administrators.Administrators help to shape policy, and they give it specific content and meaning in the process of implementation. Elected officials oversee implementation, probe specific complaints about poor performance, and attempt to correct problems with performance through fine-tuning.ConclusionsThe purpose of this article was to review literature of the politicsadministration dichotomy. In order to, the authors view about issue on different time periods was argued. The issue of politics and administration is one of the most important issues in public administration as Denhardt introduce dates one of the five main issues in public administration (Denhardt & Baker, 2007 121).Therefore, that is not to be false if we sa y that the politics-administration dichotomy is the important part of the public administration identity. Thus, awareness of its history can be effective in properly understand the field of public administration and rightly recognition its problems.There are a number of reasons why the dichotomy idea has persisted. It is convenient to explain the division of roles in terms of total separation because it is 140ADMINISTRAIE I MANAGEMENT PUBLIC 17/2011Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century Debateeasier to explain than a model based on sharing roles, particularly since the separation model does not limit the actual policy contributions of administrators in practice. At the same time, the dichotomy idea shields administrators from scrutiny and serves the interests of elected officials who can pass responsibility for unpopular decisions to administrators (Peters, 1995 177-8). In founders view of public administration, politics and administration should be separated. But, it must be identity card that their intention was to remove political interferes of public administration practices. It can be say that founders never clearly rejected the role of public administrators in policy making.They simultaneously emphasized on separation and insulation of administrators from political interference, on one hand, and interaction and incorporation of administrative contributions in the design and the implementation of public policy, on the other hand. Wilson and Goodnow as founding fathers of the field never advocated the dichotomy attributed to them (Golembiewski, 1977 Rabin and Bowman, 1984 4 Rohr, 1986 31 Van Riper, 1984 209-10), It was after them and under the scientific management and the principles of administration movements that separation policy-making of policyimplementation favored and accepted. Under this movements the strict version of separation was formed.After the classic public administration and under the new public administration approach and because of need to values such as equity, ethics, responsiveness, participation, and citizenship the role of administrators in policymaking was emphasized. In this time, Because of the political nature of administration was highlighted, and the dichotomy denounced as false, many believed that administrators should actively apply their personal values and judgments to policy-making.In 80 and 90 decades under the Reinventing Government and the New Public Management Movements observe a return to the dichotomy. Reinventing Government by introduce rowing and steering metaphor emphasized on Separation of policy-making and policy-implementation by freeingadministration from political controls and distinguishing between policy and management. NPM, also, through devolution and contracting has sought to separate policy-making more clearly from policy administration and implementation. Policy-makers make policy and then delegate its implementation to managers and hold them accountable by contract.Nowa days, it is widely regarded both unfeasible and undesirable to keep politics and administration apart and their relationship is presently depicted as complementary rather than dichotomous (Frederickson & Smith, 2003 15-40 Riggs, 1987 Svara, 1998, 1999, and 2001 Svara & Brunet, 2003). Svarapresent the idea of complementarity as a conceptual framework that includes differentiation along with interaction as an alternative to the dichotomy.The Complementarity model is based on conditions for maintaining the distinction between politics and administration, while at the same time describing how the two are intermixed and prescribing values for preserving this complex relationship.ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT 17/2011141Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century DebateReferences1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.APPLEBY, P., 1949, Policy and Administration, Tuscaloosa University of Alabama Press.CAIDEN, G. E., 1984, In search of an apolitical science of American publi c administration. In Politics and administration Woodrow Wilson and American public administration Rabin, J. and Bowman, J. (Eds.), (pp. 51-76). New York marcel Dekker.CARROL, L. JAMES, D., 1995, The Rhetoric of Reform and Political Reality in the National Performance limited review. Public Administration Review, Volume 55 302312.CHRISTENSEN, T. and LGREID, P., 2001, New Public Management The Transformation of Ideas and Practice. Aldershot Ashgate.DEMIR, T and NYHAN, R.C., 2008, The Politics-Administration Dichotomy An Empirical Search for Correspondence amongst Theory and Practice. Public Administration Review, Volume 6881DENHARDT, R.B. and BAKER, D.L., 2007, Five Great Issues in Organization Theory, in Handbook of Public administration, Rabin, J., Hildreth, W.B. and Miller, G.J, Taylor and Francis Group, capital of the United Kingdom and New YorkFREDERICKSON, H.G., 1976, The Lineage of New Public Administration, Administration and Society, Volume 8149175.FREDERICKSON, H.G. and S MITH, K. B., 2003, Public Administration Theory Primer, West view Press, Boulder, CO.FRY, B. R., 1989, Five great issues in the profession of public administration, In Handbook of public administration, Rabin,J., Hildreth, W. B, and Miller, G. J. (Eds) (1027-1064). New York Marcel Dekker.GOLEMBIEWSKI, R. T., 1977, Public Administration as a Developing Discipline, New York Marcel Dekker.GOODNOW, F. J., 1900, Politics and Administration A Study in Government, New York Russell and Russell.HUGHES, O,, 2003, Public management and administration An introduction, (3rd edition.). Basingstoke Macmillan.MARTIN R., 1952, Political science and public administration-A note on the land of the Union. American Political Science Review, Volume 46660-676. MARTIN, D.W., 1988, The Fading Legacy of Woodrow Wilson. Public Administration Review, Volume 48631636.MIEWALD, R.D., 1984, The Origins of Wilsons Thought The German customs duty and the Organic State. In Politics and Administration, Rabin, J. and Bowman, J.S, eds. New York Marcel Dekker.MONTJOY, R.S, and WATSON, D.J., 1995, A Case for Reinterpreted Dichotomy of Politics and Administration as a Professional measuring in Council-Manager Government. Public Administration Review, Volume 55231-9. OVEREEM, P., 2005, The value of the dichotomy politics, administration, and the political neutrality of administrators. Administrative Theory and Praxis, Volume 27311-330PETERS. B.G., 1995, The politics of bureaucracy. White Plains, NY Longman PublisherRABIN, J., and BOWMAN, J.S., 1984, Politics and Administration Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, New York Marcel Dekker.142ADMINISTRAIE I MANAGEMENT PUBLIC 17/2011Politics-Administration Dichotomy A Century Debate20. RANNEY, J.A, 1949, Goodnows theory of politics. Southwestern Social Sciences Quarterly, Volume 30268-27021. RIGGS, F.W, 1987, The interdependence of politics and administration. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, Volume 31418-438.22. ROHR, J.A., 1 986, To run a constitution The legitimacy of administrative state. Lawrence University of Kansas Press23. ROHR, J. A., 2003, Transaction introduction. In Politics and administration A memorize in government, Goodnow, F.J. (pp. xiii-xxx). 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Tsmg5340 Huawei

TSMG 5340 Wenzhao Li HUAWEI CISCOS CHINESE CHALLENGER The explosive growth of mobile Internet, fueled by the technological innovations, has affected both aspect of our lives. Mobile devices such as smart phones and PDA and even smart pets be now being interwoven into the fabric of our lives. The ultimate grow of all these devices is to bring all people into a networked society. Behind all these amazing devices, however, are the efforts of the telecom equipment companies, such as Alcatel, Lucent, 3Com and Cisco.Among all of these companies, there is a Chinese company, named Huawei, gradually being attention by the orbicular telecom application. For Huawei, its ambition is to catch up with Cisco as a world loss leader other than a domestic giant, which we know that none Chinese company has ever achieved in an industry as important as telecommunication. In my meter reading of this issue, trying to comprehensively understand Huaweis situation in venturing into global commercial ise, four observations stand out strength of Huawei, weakness of Huawei, Huaweis opportunities and threats faced by Huawei. StrengthFirstly, mainland Chinas telecom equipment market is the background of Huawei. Chinas telecom industry achieved substantial double-digit growth in 1980s, and surpassed US to become the largest telecom market by the end of 2002. The glooming growth in Chinese market is an initial power of Huaweis growth. Table 2 in the case shows that as early as 2005, Huawei had achieved the market leader with the share of 13. 5%. And since China was the largest market, Huawei had become the largest domestic telecom equipment company. Secondly, the special company culture and foresight shown by the company make Huawei an extraordinary different company.The military-styled Wolf-Pack corporate culture and relationship with Chinese organization are the trump cards of Huawei. The chairman, Zhengfei, admitted that If there had been no government form _or_ system of governm ent to protect, Huawei would no longer exist. But this is non the only reason of Huaweis success. Different from other companies, who following the countrys policy of exchanging market for technology, Huawei put more efforts on research and development, and investing huge punch of money in the future technology (example of investment in 3G).In this way, Huawei becomes more competitive, holding large amounts of cash and patents. As Huawei becoming more and more powerful, they start to build a national recruitment system with exceptionally high pay by Chinese standards, making them an ideal employer of college graduates. R&D investment, patents, high salariesall of these characteristics belonging to western technology powerhouse are replicated by Huawei to its model of corporate management. Thirdly, Huawei was undoubted the largest Chinese telecom equipment manufacturer, with integrated and Omni form products.Weakness The culture gap betwixt Huawei and other companies may be a anno ying to the Huaweis managers. The military-styled wolf-pack corporate culture looks not attractive to the employees overseas, who prefer a workplace with more relax and less stress. Besides this, the closed relationship between Huawei and Chinese government, especially the military, should be considered by the other countries of security issues when they planning to cooperate with Huawei. Opportunities Huaweis move in the markets of developing countries has been proved to be successful.Huawei has printed its steps in Russia, South Africa, South America and Europe. The market of USA is an opportunity for Huawei to make their next global expansion. Threats Incumbent Western firms should be very panicked of Huawei. Its reputation as a low-cost vendor is only the visible part of the iceberg, As J. Doineau said, Huaweis threat to the international telecom equipment suppliers was not to be overlooked. But in Huaweis viewpoint, if all the competitors and potential partner regarding them a s an intruder from Chinese Military, they would face serious threats due to the culture misunderstanding.On the other hand, the world leaders, like Cisco, could not freely give up their market shares to Huawei. The threat of face to face competition with them is another challenge to Huawei. Huawei began considering international expansion in 1996 when it was looking for diverse sources of growth beyond the Chinese market. The company made its initial overseas moves in the markets of developing countries, to avoid fling to head competition with its international rivals such as 3Com and Cisco.Huawei made its first significant international sale to a Russian telecom work provider in 2000, which was quickly followed by Advanced Info Service, Thailands largest mobile service provider, and Tele Norte Leste Participacoes, Brazils fixed line carrier. Whats more, study contracts won in United Arab Emirates, making UAE the first Arab country with 3G wireless communications. They set up CDM A network in Europe and expanded business in Portugal, Netherlands and GB.Huaweis success in global expansion cannot live without its competitive advantages comparing to the other companies low-cost engineering, wolf-pack culture, and government support. As concluded by an industry analyst, Huaweis threat came not from low-cost manufacturing, but from low-lost engineering. With an inexpensive and highly dependant research and development (R&D) workforce, the company was able to deliver customized, innovative solutions to global enterprises looking to reduce their capital expenditures. The support from the Chinese government is another good news to Huawei.As cited in the case, the company received financial support from the state-owned Chinese Development Bank in the form of a US$10 billion credit facility for Huaweis international expansions over five year. We neer expect that happening in an US company. Last but not least, the management philosophy Wolf-Pack is regarded as a prec ious to Huawei. We can imagine that a company believing themselves as a pack of wolves-very confident and aggressive. That is why many incumbents feel scared of Huawei like sheep scaring of wolves. However, the competitive advantages cannot sustain forever.The highly qualified employees cannot satisfy the contemporary salary standards, which are high in China, but comparably low in developed countries. The pressure of the salary expenditure change magnitude makes a threat to Huawei in global expansion. The news shows that Huawei has recently come under attacks by the US government. The reason why US government did that loosely considers the national security issues, because Huawei has a close guanxi with Chinese military. As stated by Ciscos chief operating officer John Chambers, Network would have to be capable of responding to intrusions and viruses before human operators become aware of them.And security will be the most effective and efficient if a common strategy extends by dint of all of a corporations wired and mobile networks. US government is alert to anything related to security. And what looks ironic here is that the words coming from CEO of Cisco, who is mainly competitor of Huawei in US market. With its bountiful political resources, Cisco is considered to be director of attacks. Whether the issue could be resolved is determined by the communications between Huawei and US government, and of course, the local incumbents.

Buddhism and Christianity

Buddhist and Christians are among the worlds larges religions. They are characterized by different teachings and practices that they observe. They some(prenominal) have different origins and imprints that form part of their structures. The two characteristics that I am going to look at are the honest teachings of both Christians and Buddhists and their religious scriptures. Ethical teachings Ethics is one of the issues which stand out among the teachings of both religions. The two religions emphasize on the need for proper ethics done believes, practices and righteousness.Despite the violence that they both put on ethics, differences emerge between the two in their theoretical and practical aspects. There are several areas in which the differences can be evident such as their ideas concerning sin, the notion and model of ethics together with the codes of ethics. intrude in both religions, human beings are regarded as sinful beings. Sin is the basis of religious doctrines and w ithout it it is possible that estim fitted religious believes could not be there. According to both religions, human beings are characterized by sin, im sodding(a)ion and guilty.It is only through moral religious principles that one can be made pure and staring(a). The births of both Buddha and Christ were good news to both the Buddhist and Christians respectively. Jesus was innate(p) to bring salvation and love from deity while Buddha was born to bring the message of wisdom and compassionate to mankind as well as guide them the path to enlightenment (King, P. 3). Christians believe that all human beings are connected to the first sin in the Garden of Eden by the first parents hug drug and evening. This sin has over the years been passed down from one generation to the other.This story explains the origin of sin which according to the story was human disobe drop deadnce to God. Therefore, Adam and Eve went against Gods wishes when they decided to ignore the orders He had given them of not eating the fruit they ate. Because God is perceived as a model for perfect ethics, then going against his wishes will be the same as sinning. Therefore, according to Christians, sin is not only the original sin that has been passed down though generations except also the hearts disobedience in following or practicing the divine morals, ethical codes and spirit.Hence the base of Christian ethics is not only accept in Christ but also living according to his teachings (Locke, P. 237). In Buddhism, there is no that kind of original sin as in Christianity. They kind of believe that every unmarried is born of craving and ignorance which results to human beings being born in a cycle observered to as samsara a birth and final stage cycle. It is only through enlightenment that an individual can overcome craving and ignorance. According to Buddhas personal experiences, sin is originally caused by impunity, bad karmas and crack there is no any other source.In the Buddhist s tructure, it is believed that sin originates from oneself and can therefore be overcome by oneself. Therefore, the basis of Buddhists ethical teachings is the mind that sin originates from the mind and can only be overcome by the mind (Smart, p. 77). Model and ethical notion both Christianity and Buddhism take the perfect model of ethics to be an important aspect of religious morality. Ethical teachings of both religion focus on Christ and Buddha because both of their lives were full of overlord virtues and love that cannot be compared with any other.These models are the foundations of both religions although there are different ideas concerning ethics between them (Locke, P. 237). For Christians, love (agape) is the basis of moral life which is shown distinctly in the life and teachings of Christ as well as in the bible. They believe that God is love and it is what constitutes his heart. Therefore, it is through his grace and benignity of human sins that ethical values can be cu ltivated in individuals and salvation can be attained. Christian moral standards are basically established on sin, forgiveness, belief and the love of God.They also believe that belief must go with actions a Christian can best be recognized by his/her deeds as compared to what he/she says. Contrary to the Christians, Buddhist morality is not based upon the power or the life of Buddha but instead it is based upon his teachings about cause and personal effects. They believe that an individuals positive or negative attitude is determined by his/her actions and thoughts. Buddha taught people to make an island of yourself, make yourself your refuge there is no other refuge. Make truth your island, make truth your refuge there is no other refuge, (King, P.3) Therefore, in both religions human beings are perceived to be sinful. The minds purity is perceived to be the basic step in ethics through which suffering and impunity which has been created in individuals can be overcome. If the boil ersuit aim is transformation from the evil nature to divine then Christians could achieve it through uniting with Christ while Buddhist could achieve the same by observing Buddhahood. Religious scriptures According to the interviews I conducted with a Christian and a Buddhist leader, I found out the following about their religious scripturesTeachings concerning God conservative Buddhists scriptures teach nothing about populateence of God. It does not affirm or deny existence of God and does not state who is divine not even Gautama himself. Liberal ones do not put emphasis on this concept but they pay homage to Buddha, Buddhist teachers, deities and ancestors. They worship using images, crouch before them, give offerings to them, chant and pray to them. Although earlier Buddhism did not recognize Buddha to be omniscient, they now consider him and other teachers to be omniscience.Contrary to Buddhist scripture teachings, Christians refer to the bible that teaches them that God exist s. It states that the fact that there is a universe is an indication that there is a God somewhere. Psalm 191 The heavens contain the glory of God and the firmament showeth his handiwork. & Romans 120 Though God is invisible, His power and divinity can be seen through the things that are made. The only bureau the universe could exist is because there is a supernatural being powerful and wiser than anybody else (Scott, p. 87).Purpose of religion The purpose of religion was to better mans relationship with God. Buddhism scriptures do not teach anything about God while the bible teaches that the whole purpose of humanity is to serve and have a better relationship with Christ. Ecclesiastes 1213 The whole duty of man is to fear God and keep his commands. Ephesians 17-9 The will and purpose of God was to redeem man by the forgiveness of sins through the blood of Jesus. Teaching about a true and supreme God Buddhism teachings allow for worship of many gods while the biblical teachin gs forbid the worship of more than one God.Matthew 410 Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and Him ONLY shalt thou serve. We are not to worship many gods, nor any god other than Jehovah 2 Corinthians 618 Colossians 119-22. Destiny of man Buddhist scriptures teach about reincarnation (rebirth), Karma which teaches that the future lives are influenced by current actions and that what happens currently is the result of previous actions and nirvana which teaches that the ultimate purpose of man is to get out of the birth and rebirth cycle characterized by suffering.While the bible teaches that an individual only lives once and physically dies once after which there will be resurrection, judgment and eternal rewards. 1 Corinthians 1522, 23 All die as a result of Adams sin as a result of Jesus, all live again. Resurrection is the opposite of death hence the spirit is reunited with the body. Matthew 2531-46 The wet go to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life. Buddhis t scriptures do not teach about death and resurrection (Scott, p. 87).Suffering Buddhist scriptures teach that suffering is all-important(a) in life, its brought about by human desires and they can be eliminated by getting rid of earthly desires by not wanting to exist as an individual. The bible teachings teach that suffering is part of life it is a consequence of sin physical desires are neither good nor bad, it depends on how you test to satisfy them, an individuals desire to exist is not bad and its through trust in God that you can be able to overcome suffering and not through defeating yourself.The Buddhist teaching of not to desire to be an individual can be considered to blasphemy Gods work by Christians. Works cited King, L. Winston. Buddhism and Christianity Some Bridges of Understanding. Taylor and Francis. 2008, p. 3. Locke, A. Kenneth, The Foundation for Ethical Behavior A Christian perspective for a dialogue with Buddhism, Hsi Lai Journal of humanitarian Buddhism 3 (2002) 327. Scott, Archibald. Buddhism and Christianity A Parallel and a Contrast, Being the Croall Lectures for 1889-90. General Books LLC. (2009) p. 87. Smart, Ninian. Buddhism and Christianity rivals and allies. University of Hawaii Press. (1993) p. 77.

Negative Utilitarianism: An Overview

Most utilitarian theories deal with producing the greatest amount of money of hot for the greatest number of people. Negative utilitarianism (NU) requires us to promote the least amount of evil or harm, or to prevent the greatest amount of harm for the greatest number. Proponents like Karl Popper, Christoph Fehige and Clark Wolf argue that this is a to a greater extent effective ethical formula, since, they contend, the greatest harms are more consequential than the greatest goods. Karl Popper also referred to an epistemological argument It adds to clarity in the fields of ethics, if we formulate our de valet de chambreds negatively, i. e. if we demand the elimination of suffering rather than the forward motion of happiness. (Karl R. Popper,1945) Most forms of utilitarianism hold that we ought to do that which maximises the good and minimises the fully grown. There is somewhat disagreement about what the good and the bad are whether the good is people being clever and the bad is people being discontent, or the good is people getting what they want and the bad is people not getting what they want, or whatever only most utilitarians agree that whatever the good and the bad are, we ought to bring about as much of the precedent and as little of the latter as is possible.Negative utilitarians disagree. Negative utilitarians are concerned only with minimising the bad. They dont judge we ought to maximise the good and minimise the bad, and that when we must choose between the two we must weigh the diversity that we can make to the one against the difference that we can make to the other rather, negative utilitarians hold fitting that we ought to minimise the bad, that we ought to alleviate suffering as far as we are able to do so. state that I ware a choice to make I can either make the happiest man in the world even happier than he already is, or I can alleviate some of the suffering of the unhappiest man in the world. Suppose further that the differenc e that I can make to the happy man is much greater than the difference that I can make to the unhappy man. Most utilitarians would prescribe that in this case I ought to help the happy man. As I can make a greater difference to the life of the happy man than I can make to the life of the unhappy man, it is the happy man whom I should help.Negative utilitarians disagree. Negative utilitarians hold that it is more important to alleviate suffering than it is to promote amusement, and that I should therefore always choose to alleviate suffering rather than promote pleasure when forced to choose between the two. In most supporters of moderate NU the preference to survive is stronger than the wish to be freed from suffering, so that they refuse the idea of a quick and painless destruction of life. Some of them believe that, in time, the worst cases of suffering is defeated and a world of minor suffering can be realized.The epic problem with negative utilitarianism is that it appears to require the destruction of the world. The world contains much suffering, and the future, presumably, contains a great deal more suffering than the present. Each of us forget suffer many calamaties in the course of our lives, before those lives eventually end with the suffering of death. There is a way, however, to reduce this suffering we could end it all now. With nuclear weapons technology, we have the capability to blow up the planet, making it uninhabitable.Doing so would cause us all to suffer death, only if death is going to come to us all anyway, so causing everyone to die will not increase the suffering in the world. Causing us to die now, though, will decrease the suffering in the world it will prevent us from suffering those calamaties that were going to plague us during the remainder of our lives. Destroying the planet, then, will reduce the suffering in the world. According to negative utilitarianism, then, it is what we ought to do. That, though, is surely absurd. N egative utilitarianism, therefore, is false.

Political Power in the Prince by Machiavelli Essay

Machiavelli argues in another major work that the purpose of politics is to make headway a common good. How does this statement relate to the ideas Machiavelli presents in The Prince?The fact that two of Machiavellis greatest and close to famous works on policy-making force came into being thanks to the downfall of his own political c beer is quite ironic. More ironic however is the way he fight backs his statements in each mass about the purpose of political power. As previously stated, one of Machiavellis major works, referring directly to The Discourses on Livy (1517), argues that the purpose of political power is to promote a common good. Mean speckle, The Prince presents a ruler slight worried about the common good and more concerned about maintaining and expanding political power at all costs.Laws make men good, states Machiavelli in book one of the discourses, after a long story about how men created politics to create order. At first men searched for the strongest an d bravest among them to mold him into a attracter they could obey. Machiavelli then says From this beginning came recognition of what is proper and good, as opposed to what is pernicious and wicked. However, as time went on, the peck became harder to satisfy and politics became more complicated.New forms of government and laws were created in order to keep the people in order because as he states in The Discourses men will never be good, except by necessity. Simple drawing cards became the tyrants he promotes in The Prince. They sought to be feared by their people in order to be obeyed and maintain power. In The Prince the leader is no longer the strongest and the bravest, but the prudent, more astute. The leader is one that keister predict things such as treachery and conspiracy and end it before it can cause further problems in his government.The Prince discusses many ways for an astute leader to rule his state and perchance one or two of these promote the common good of the p eople, and it isnt even actual common good. In The prince, the appearance of a common good is more important than having it as a reality. A ruler must appear to be honest and good but doesnt necessarily direct to be. I believe the relation between Machiavellis two texts on the purpose of political power is that one describes what politics were made to be while the other discusses what they have actually come to be and how to keep them that way.Instead of a common good it goes more along the lines of what is good for the ruler. While the statements contradict each other more than once, I believe the texts to be somewhat complementary in the find that alone, they each give a different side or view of what politics actually are, while reading them both gives the reader an expanded, more complete understanding, not only on what politics are and how to maintain that political power, but also on why it has to be that way for the good of the people.

Does Immigration Contribute to a Better America

Does in-migration Contribute to a Better the States? Ever since this country was first nonice and settled, pile from countries all over the world left their homelands and migrated to the New World. People from Spain, Ger umteen, France, England and Asia traveled bang-up distances to reach a vernalfound land of opportunity, to perhaps escape religious persecution or tyrant rulers. For centuries America has been viewed as a place for a fresh start, a place where anybody can coiffe and come a wise life and follow their hopes and dreams. Even today people come to America for the submit same reasons that they did all those years before. even so unlike the immigration of our ancestors, the immigrants of today arnt able to just come here and do what they require without anybody noticing. Today about people view immigration as a problem to the United States. One of the most easily recognizable groups of todays immigrants comes from Mexico. The Mexican immigrants a good deal c ome here for better economic and living opportunities than they had at home. But no matter how much(prenominal) these immigrants want to better their lives for themselves and their families, most Americans feel that they are trouble and a drain on our resources.Despite what many a(prenominal) think, the Mexican immigrants are helping our nation. The immigrants take many low end jobs that Americans do not want or are over qualified for, they can also boost our economy with the capital they ready from running(a), and they diversify the nation. Immigration does and leave contribute to a better America. Most of the immigrants that come to America from Mexico are just looking for a better life for themselves and their families. The immigrants know that there are plenty of jobs in America for them and they are willing to risk being arrested just for a better opportunity.With all these people eager to work, you would think the immigrants would be more(prenominal)(prenominal) accept ed by the American people. There are many jobs that most Americans simply will and do not want to take due to low cave in and amount of work. But thanks to immigrants that would love to have the opportunity to work in our country these jobs are taken. With each immigrant that comes and procures a job, more silver is played out within the American economy. The more money spent in the economy will eventually help it grow making us a more prosperous nation financially.The more money the immigrants spend in the US the more demand they take for the people who make the goods they purchase. But the immigrants do not only help our country when they make money in the US, many send money home to their loved ones to help pay for things they need. Immigration does not only help the economy of the US, it also benefits the country that the immigrant comes from. According to Philippe Legrain, a journalist and economist, migrants from poor countries working in rich ones send home much more $20 0 billion a year officially, (The Case for Immigration).With all this money coming and going from immigrants, its unbelievable that we look down on immigration. The people who make the immigration laws are blind to the fact that the migrants help our economy. Instead of trying to give migrants out we should forfeit them easier access into our nation for work, and then when they are ready they should be allowed to leave. Once immigrants get into the US many become stuck and unable to go home because it is too risky. If we allowed them to move freely most would just come temporarily to get enough money for what they need back home.According to Legrain, Most migrants do not want to leave home forever they want to go work abroad for a while to earn enough to buy a house or set up a business back home. (The Case for Immigration). Of course some of the migrants would want to stay, but there wouldnt be an overwhelming number of them. The immigrants that do settle would not only contribu te to our work force and economy, they will add diversity to our country. Having many people from all over the world is something that can be in effect(p) to any country. Many of Americas venture-capital backed start-ups have immigrant founders. Legrain) With introduction of new peoples come new ideas, cultural experiences, and skills that can all be used to benefit our country. High skilled people from different countries could help American companies develop new drugs, technologies, appliances and even new architectural ideas. Twenty-one of Britains Nobel-prize winners arrived in the country as refugees. (Legrain) The foreigners with new ideas could spark the next big American innovation with their different shipway of thinking and perspective. Since they are new to our country they see differently than we do, and can have a wholly different view on things.This cultural diversity can also transform little towns into cities with the new people inhabiting them. The immigrants could bring in their cultures and help build our towns into culturally diverse cities that would maybe attract tourists and new residents. Although there are many benefits of immigration, many believe that the immigrants would take away from American workers and steal jobs. However this is not true, many immigrants cannot compete with American workers due to skill differences and jobs they are willing to do.Also, there arent a fixed number of jobs going around for everyone, and immigrant workers are not substitutes for American ones. These fallacies are rightfully what deter many American people from lowering the immigration laws and allowing more immigrants into the country. If the people of our country knew the benefits of having more immigrants, the laws wouldnt be so strict and more migrants would be allowed to come and work in our country. It is conviction that the government really recognizes the benefits of immigration to our country.More immigrants manner more working pe ople, more working people means a lower unemployment rate and more money being spent in our country. The more money spent in the US means a better economy which is something that this country needs. We need to allow the immigrants into our country not only to help us, but to help them make money for themselves and their families. If America truly is an equal opportunity country, then we need to give all people the same opportunities. Sources Philippe Legrain. The Case for Immigration . N. p. , n. d. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. http//www. philippelegrain. com/the-case-for-immigration/.